A review: Antimicrobial activity of the medicinal spice plants to cure human disease
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.2021.8.3.1152Keywords:
Human pathogens, antimicrobial activity, medicinal plants, microorganisms, SpicesAbstract
Since the ancient time medicinal plants and spices are used as herbal medicine because of their medicinal values. They are the valuable resources of the natural antimicrobial compounds used to treat the infectious disease caused by bacteria and other pathogens. Plant’s extract, essential oil and numerous kinds of secondary compounds had antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal and antioxidants activities with less or no toxic effects; that are essential to cure many diseases. The compounds isolated from the medicinal spice plants show antimicrobial activity against some bacterial strains that has the ability to affect the food quality and shelf life of the food. These plants have various medicinal properties like anti-inflammatory action, tonic, expectorants, diuretics, astringents, digestives, carminative, antibiotics and stimulants etc. The spectrum of compounds present in medicinal spice plants, and the structure of major compounds discussed in this review, are responsible for all of their medicinal properties. Therefore, plants are used in the form of maceration, fluid extracts, oil, syrup, juice, decoction, powder, tea and ointments. In the terms of the frequencies and configuration of various radicals both medicinal plants and antibiotics are different. Since plant-based products have no toxicity, also less costly than conventional drugs, research on the compounds found in medicinal plants and their action against harmful microbial species should be conducted in order to improve human health and expand the use of medicinal plants. Plants also have the ability to inhibit or alter protein-protein interactions, making them a powerful modulator of signal transduction, apoptosis, mitosis and immune response.
Downloads
References
Amenu D. Antimicrobial activity of medicinal plant extracts and their synergistic effect on some selected pathogens. A J Ethno. 2014;1:1:18-19.
Manandhar S, Luitel S, Dahal RK. In vitro antimicrobial activity of some medicinal plants against human pathogenic bacteria. J Trop Med. 2019;2019:1895340:1-5. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1895340
Ali A. Herbs that heal: The philanthropic behavior of nature. Ann Phytomed. 2020;9(1):7-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.21276/ap.2020.9.1.2
Kumar A, Sharma P, Mahajan A, Begum Z. In vitro comparative study of antioxidant and antibacterial activity of selected dietary plants. Nepal J Biotechnol. 2018;6:1:39-45. https://doi.org/10.3126/njb.v6i1.22336
Shrivastava AK, Chaurasiya JP, Khan R, Dhand C, Verma S. Role of medicinal plants of traditional use in recuperating devastating COVID- 19 situation. J Med Aromat Plants. 2020; 9:5:1-16. https://doi.org/10.35248/2167-0412.20.9.359
Subhose V, Srinivas P, Narayana A. Basic principle of pharmaceutical science in Ayurveda. Institute of History of Medicine. 2005;35:2:83-92.
Hassan, Ullah H. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of the medicinal plant Veronica biloba. J Chem. 2019;2019: 5264943:1-7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/5264943
Mahato T K, Sharma K. Study of medicinal herbs and its antibacterial activity: a review. J Drug Deliv Ther. 2018;8:5-S:47-54. https://doi.org/10.22270/jddt.v8i5-s.1938
Khan T, Khan MA, Mashwani ZR, Ullah N, Nadhman A. Therapeutic potential of medicinal plants against COVID-19: the role of antiviral medicinal metabolites. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol. 2020;31:1-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2020.101890
Ganapathy S, Dakappa SS, Lakshmikantha RY. Antibacterial and molecular docking studies of bioactive component from leaves of Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl Res J Phytochem. 2016;11:1:28-43. https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/rjphyto.2017.28.34
Blanco YC, Vaillant F, Perez AM, Reynes M, Brillouet JM, Brat P. The Noni Fruit (Morinda citrifolia L.): A Review of agricultural research, nutritional and therapeutic properties. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2006;19(6-7):645-654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2005.10.001
Ghorbani A, Esmaeilizadeh M. Pharmacological properties of Salvia officinalis and its components. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine. 2017;7(4):433-40. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jtcme.2016.12.014
Saxena M, Saxena J, Nerma R, Singh D, Gupta A. Phytochemistry of medicinal plants. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2013;1(6):168-82.
Dhiman R, Aggarawal N, Aneja KR, Kaur M. In vitro antimicrobial activity of spices and medicinal herbs against selected microbes associated with juices. Int J Microbiol. 2016:9015802. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/9015802
Gottardi D, Bukvicki D, Prasad S, Tyagi AK. Beneficial effects of spices in food preservation and safety. Front Microbiol.2016;7: 1394. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01394
Kia FJ, Lorigooini Z, Khoei HA. Medicinal plants: past history and future perspective. J Herb Med Pharmacol. 2017;7(1):1-7. https://doi.org/10.15171/jhp.2018.01
Wiart C. Enthnopharmacology of medicinal plants: Asia and the Pacific. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2007;64(6):750-57. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2125.2007.02888.x
Petrovska BB. Historical review of medicinal plants usage. Pharmacognosy. 2012;6(11):1-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.95849
Silver LL. Are natural products still the best source for antibacterial discovery? the bacterial entry factor. Drug Discov. 2008;3(5):487-500. https://doi.org/10.1517/17460441.3.5.487
Adhikari P, Paul SB. History of Indian traditional medicine: A Medical Inheritance. Asian J Pharm Clin. Res. 2018;11(1):421-26. https://doi.org/10.22159/ajpcr.2018.v11i1.21893
Ahmed BE, khan J, Sajjad N, Ali A, Aldakeel FM, Mateen A, Alqahtani MS, Rabbani S. SARS-CoV-2: Insight in genome structure, pathogenesis and viral receptor binding analysis– An Updated Review. Int Immuno Pharmacol. 2021;95:107493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107493
Yabesh M, Vijaykumar S, Arulmozhi P, Rajalakshmi S. Screening the antimicrobial potential of twelve medicinal plants against venereal diseases causing pathogens. Acta Ecologica Sinica. 2019;39(5):356-61, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2018.09.011
Elizabeth J, Gassara F, Kouassi AP, Brar SK, Belkacemi K. Spice use in food: properties and benefits. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2017;(57(6):1078-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2013.858235
Wolde T, Kuma H, TruehaK, Yabeker A. Anti-bacterial activity of garlic extract against human pathogenic bacteria. J Pharmacovig. 2018;6(1):1-5. https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-6887.1000253
Fahmi R. Antioxidant and antibacterial properties of endogenous phenolic compounds from commercial mustard products. 2016; Master's Thesis; University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. http://hdl.handle.net/1993/31624
Miceli A, Aleo A, Corona O, Sardina MT, Mammina C, Settanni L. Antibacterial activity of Borago officinalis and Brassica juncea aqueous extracts evaluated in vitro and in situ using different food model systems. Food Cont. 2014;40:157-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.12.006
Dua A, Garg G, Balkar S, Mahajan R. Antimicrobial properties of mentholic extract of cumin (Cuminum cyminum) seeds. Int J Res Ayurveda Pharm. 2013;4(1):104-07. http://dx.doi.org/10.7897/2277-4343.04136
Shreaz S, Wani WA, Behbehani JM, Raja V, Irshad M, Karched M, Ali I, Siddiqi WA. cinnamaldehyde and its derivatives, A novel class of antifungal agents. Fitoterapia. 2016;112:116-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2016.05.016
Mageed MA, Mansour AF, Massry KF, Ramadan MM, Shaheen MS, Shaaban H. effect of microwaves on essential oils of coriander and cumin seeds and on their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. J Essent Oil-Bear Plants. 2012; 15(4):614-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/0972060X.2012.10644096
Pillay SR, Roy A, Rajeshkumar S, Lakshmi T. Antimicrobial activity of turmeric, cumin, and ginger oil on oral pathogens. Drug Invent Today. 2019;11(5):1106-09.
Mahendra P, Bisht S. Ferula asafoetida: Traditional uses and pharmacological activity. Pharmacogn Rev. 2012;6(12):141-46. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.99948
Dusica P, Nikolic LB. Improvement of the yield and antimicrobial activity fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) essential oil by fruit milling. Ind crops Prod. 2019;142(1):7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.111854
Shaharajabian MH, Sun W, Cheng Q. Chinese Star Anise and Anise, magic herbs in traditional chinese medicine and modern pharmaceutical science. Asian J Med Biol Res. 2019; 5(3):162-79. https://doi.org/10.3329/ajmbr.v5i3.43584
Salehi B, Zakaria ZA, Gyawali R, Ibrahim SA, Rajkovic J, Shinwari Z K, Khan T. Piper Species: a comprehensive review on their phytochemistry, biological activities and applications. Molecules. 2019;24(7):1-118. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24071364
Vangara A, Babitha GA, Prakash S, Timmasetty J. Evaluation of antibacterial efficacy of sesame seed on periodontal pathogens: an in vitro study. CODS J Dent. 2019;11(2):44-47. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10063-0048
Burt S. Essential Oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods—A Review. Int J Food Microbiol. 2004;94(3):223-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.03.022
Timimi LN. Antibacterial and anticancer activities of fenugreek seed extract. Asian Pac J Cancer. 2019;20(12):3771-76. https://dx.doi.org/10.31557/APJCP.2019.20.12.3771
Bhatt V, Kumar M, Selvam P. Antimicrobial effect of ajwain seed ethanolic extract against food borne pathogenic bacteria. Int Food Res J. 2018; 25(3):908-12.
Srilaong V, Tanprasert K, Kalaynarat S, Nguanpuag KS, Techavuthiporn C. Ginger (Zingiber officinale) oil as an antimicrobial agent for minimally processed produce: A case study in Shreddedgreen Papaya. Int J Agric Biol. 2011;13(6):895-901. https://doi.org10-702/dnt/2011/13-6-895-901
Nunez L, Aquino MD. Microbicide activity of clove essential oil (Eugenia caryophyllata). Braz J Microbiol. 2012;43(4):1255-60. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822012000400003
Xu JG, Liu T, Hu QP, CaoXM. Chemical composition, antibacterial properties and mechanism of action of essential oil from clove buds against Staphylococcus aureus. Molecules. 2016;21(9):1194. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules21091194
Mbaveng AT, Kuete V. Syzygium aromaticum in medicinal spices and vegetables from Africa. Academic Press. 2017;611-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809286-6.00029-7
Pandey A, Singh P. antibacterial activity of Syzygium aromaticum (clove) with metal ion effect against food borne pathogens. Asian J Plant Sci Res. 2011;1(2):69-80.
Badei A, Faheld S, Akel E, Mahmoud B. Application of some spices in flavoring and preservation of cookies: 2-antimicrobial and sensory properties of cardamom, cinnamon and clove. DtschLebensmRundsch. 2002;98:261-65.
Zhang H, Chen X, He JJ. Pharmacological action of clove oil and its application in oral care products. Oral Care Industry. 2009;19:23– 24.
Coccimiglio J, Alipour M, Jiang ZH, Gottardo C, Suntres Z. Antioxidant, antibacterial and cytotoxic activities of the ethanolic Origanum vulgare extract and its major constituents. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2016:1404505. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/1404505
Veenstra JP, Johnson JJ. Oregano (Origanum vulgare) extract for food preservation and improvement in gastrointestinal health. Int J Nutr. 2019;3:43-52. https://doi.org/10.14302/issn.2379-7835.ijn-19-2703
Liu Q, Meng X, Li Y, Tang GY. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of spices. Int J Mol Sci. 2017;18(6):1283. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms18061283
Keith S. Cinnamon: Update of Potential Health Benefits. Nutrition Today. 2019;54(1):42-52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/NT.0000000000000319
Rao PV, Gan SH. Cinnamon: A Multifaceted Medicinal Plant. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2014; 2014:642942. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/642942
Wang Q, Ou ZB, Lei HW, Zeng XH, Ying Y, Bai WD. Antimicrobial activities of a new formula of spice water extracts against foodborne bacteria. J Food Process Preserv. 2012;36(4):374-81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4549.2012.00691.x
Revati S, Bipin C, Chitra P, Minakshi B. In vitro antibacterial activity of seven Indian spices against high level gentamicin resistant strains of Enterococci. Arch Med Sci. 2015;11(4):863-68. https://doi.org/10.5114/aoms.2015.53307
Semwal RB, Semwal DK, Combrick S, Viljoen AM. Gingerol and shogoal: important nutraceutical principles from ginger. Phytochem. 2015;117:554-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phytochem.2015.07.012
Azadpour M, Azadpour N, Bahmani M, Hassanzadazar H, Kopaei MR, Naghdi N. Antimicrobial effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and Mallow (Malva sylvestris) hydroalcoholic extracts on four pathogen bacteria. Der Pharmacia Letter. 2016;8(1):181-87.
Mostafa NM. Antibacterial activity of ginger (Zingiber officinale) leaves essential oil nanoemulsion against the Cariogenic Streptococcus mutans. J Appl Pharm Sci. 2018; 8(9):34–41. https://doi.org/10.7324/japs.2018.8906
Silva F, Domingues FC. Antimicrobial activity of coriander oil and its effectiveness as food preservative. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2017;57(1):35-47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2013.847818
Dua A, Garg G, Kumar D, Mahajan R. Polyphenolic composition and antimicrobial potential of methanolic coriander (Coriandrum sativum) seed extract. Int J Pharm Sci. 2014;2302-08. http://dx.doi.org/10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.5(6).2302-08
Onder A. Coriander and its phyto constituents for the beneficial effects. Potential of Essential Oil. 2018;165-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.78656
Dimic G, Tanackov SK, Mojovic L, Pejin J. Antifungal activity of lemon essential oil, coriander and cinnamon extracts on food borne molds in direct contact and the vapor phase. J Food Process Pres. 2015;39(6):1778–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.12410
Duarte A, Ferreira S, Silva F, Domingues FC. Synergistic activity of coriander oil and conventional antibiotics against Acinetobacter baumannii. Phytomedicine. 15;19(3-4):236-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phymed.2011.11.010
Shang A, Cao SY, Xu XY, Gan RY, Tang GY. Bioactive compounds and biological functions of garlic (Allium sativum L.). Foods. 2019;8(7):246. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8070246
Gunda MM, Rajendra PB, Odelu G, Ugandhar T. Studies on antimicrobial activity of garlic extract against Bacillus subtilis and Aspergillus niger. Int J Curr Adv Res. 2018;7(1):9169–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.24327/ijcar.2018
Banik U, Parasuraman S, Adhikari AK, Othman NH. Curcumin: The spicy modulator of breast carcinogenesis. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2017;36:98. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13046-017-0566-5
Feghali PAR, Ibrahim R, Nawas T. Antibacterial activity of curcumin against lebanese clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Moj Toxicology. 2018;4(2):81–83. https://doi.org/10.15406/mojt.2018.04.00094
Ali N. In vitro studies of antimicrobial Activity of (Curcuma longa) rhizomes against Helicobacter pylori. Iraq Medical Journal. 2017;1(1):7–9.
Tomar RS, Shrivastava V. Efficacy evaluation of ethanolic extract of Brassica nigra as potential antimicrobial agent against selected microorganism. Int J Pharm Healthc Mark. 2014;3(4):117-23.
Peng C, Zhao SQ, Zhang J, Huang GY, Chen LY, Zhao FY. Chemical composition, antimicrobial property and microencapsulation of mustard (Sinapis alba) seed essential oil by complex coacervation. Food Chemistry. 2014;165:560-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.05.126
Lu M, Dai T, Murray CK, Wu MX. Bactericidal property of oregano oil against multidrug resistant clinical isolates. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:1-14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.02329
Chahal K, Dhaiwal K, Single N. Chemical composition of Trachyspermum ammi L. and it’s biological properties: A Review. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2017;6(3):131-40.
Mood BS, Shafeghat M, Metanat M, Saeidi S, Sepehri N. The inhibitory effect of ajwain essential oil on bacterial growth. Int J Infect. 2014;1(2):e19394. https://dx.doi.org/10.17795/iji-19394
Li Z, Liu A, Wu H, Tan L, Long Y, Gou Y, Sun S, Sang L. Influence of temperature, light and plant growth regulators on germination of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) Seeds. Afr J Biotechnol. 2010;9(9):1354-58. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB10.1571f
Zhu F, Mojel R, Li G. Physicochemical properties of black pepper (Piper nigrum) starch. Carbohydr Polym. 2018;181:986-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.11.051
Fern K, Fern A, Morris R. Useful Tropical Plants Database. 2019. http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Calopogonium%20caeruleum
Lomarat P, Sripha K, Phanthong P, Kitphati W. In vitro biological activities of black pepper essential oil and its major components relevant to the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease. Thai J Pharm Sci. 2015;39(3):94-101.
Akthar MS, Birhanu G, Demise S. antimicrobial activity of Piper nigrum and Cassia didymobotyra leaf extract on selected food borne pathogens. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2014;4(2):S911-S919. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2222-1808(14)60757-X
Amin G. Cumin. Handbook of herbs and spices. 2012;250-59. https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857095671.250
Saee Y, Dadashi M, Eslami G, Goudarzi H, Taheri S, Fallah F. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Cuminum cyminum essential oil and extract against bacterial strains isolated from patients with symptomatic urinary tract infection. Novelty in Biomedicine. 2016;44:147-52. https://doi.org/10.22037/nbm.v4i4.9867
Ogidi OI, George DG, Enenebeaku UE, Esie NG, Akpan UM. Efficacy evaluation of extracts of Brassica juncea (Brown mustard) seeds as potential antimicrobial agent against pathogenic microbes. J Med Plants Stud. 2019;7(4):263–65.
Nugraha RV, Ridwansyah H, Ghozali M, Khairani AF, Atik N. Traditional herbal medicine candidates as complementary treatments for COVID-19: A review of their mechanisms, pros and cons, evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2020; 2020:2560645. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/2560645
Zhang WM, Wang W, Zhang JJ, Wang Y, Hao WJ, Huang WY. Antibacterial constituents of Hainan Morinda citrifolia (noni) leaves. J Food Sci. 2016;81(5):192-96. http://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.13302
Kang JH, Song KB. Antibacterial activity of the noni fruit extract against Listeria monocytogenes and its applicability as a natural sanitizer for the washing of fresh-cut produce. Food Microbiol. 2019;84:103260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2019.103260
Nugraheni ER, Adriani GR, Munawaroh H. Antibacterial activity of ethyl acetate the extract of noni fruit (Morinda citrifolia l.) against bacterial spoilage in fish. International Conference on Food Science and Engineering. 2016;193:012019. http://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/193/1/012019
Luo B, Kastrat E, Morcol T, Cheng H, Kennelly E, Long C. Gaultheria longibracteolata, An alternative source of wintergreen oil. Food Chemistry. 2020;342:128244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128244
Magiera A, Sienkiewicz M, Olszewska MA, Kicel A, Michiel P. Chemical profile and antibacterial activity of essential oils from leaves and fruits of Gaultheria procumbens L. cultivated in poland. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutical - Drug Research. 2019;76(1):93-102. http://doi.org/10.32383/appdr/94245
Salevic A, Prieto C, Cabedo L, Nedovic V, Lagaron JM. Physicochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of electrospun poly(?-caprolactone) films containing a solid dispersion of sage (Salvia officinalis L.) extract. Nanomaterials. 2019;9:270. http://doi.org/10.3390/nano9020270
Yazgan H. Investigation of antimicrobial properties of sage essential oil and its nanoemulsion as antimicrobial agent. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 2020;130:109669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2020.109669
Singh BR. Evaluation of antibacterial activity of Salvia officinalis L. sage oil on veterinary clinical isolates of bacteria. Noteare-medicine. Noto-are 15785463: 2013.
Cureno HJ, Reyes CR, Garcia IV, Valdez LG, Jesus AG, Ruiz JA, Montoya MJ. Alkaloids of pharmacological importance in Catharanthus roseus. 2019. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82006
Lobay D. Rauwolfia in the treatment of hypertension. Integrative Medicine. Integr Med (Encinitas). 2015;14(3):40–46. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4566472/
Dar RA, Shahnawaz M, Qazi PH. General overview of medicinal plants: A Review. Int J Phytopharm. 2017;349-51. http://www.phytopharmajournal.com/Vol6_Issue6_08.pdf
Amoateng P, Quansah E, Karikari TK, Asase A, Safo DO, Kukuia KK, Amponsah IK, Nyarko AK. Medicinal plants used in the treatment of mental and neurological disorders in Ghana. Evidence Based Complementary Altern Med. 2018.1-14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8590381
Anand U, Herrera NJ, Altemimi A, Lakhssassi N. A comprehensive review on medicinal plants as antimicrobial therapeutics: potential avenues of biocompatible drug discovery. Metabolites. 2019;9:258. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo9110258
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2021 Varsha Mahesh Mayekar, Ahmad Ali, Hina Alim, Nimisha Patel
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright and Licence details of published articles
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Open Access Policy
Plant Science Today is an open access journal. There is no registration required to read any article. All published articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC Attribution 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).