Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
Plant Science Today (PST)

Research Articles

Early Access

Comparative in vitro efficacy of fungicides and homoeopathic preparations against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary in ajwain

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.12746
Submitted
15 November 2025
Published
12-03-2026

Abstract

Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi  L.) Sprague is a high-value seed spice crop in India with considerable medicinal and culinary importance, yet its production is severely limited by stem rot caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary, resulting in yield losses exceeding 50–80 %, with major economic implications for farmers and the spice export market. This study tested the hypothesis that selected homoeopathic formulations can reproducibly suppress fungal growth, providing environmentally safe and economically viable alternatives to chemical fungicides. In vitro evaluation revealed complete inhibition of S. sclerotiorum by propiconazole 11.9 % + azoxystrobin 7.1 % (Apropo), tebuconazole 18.3 % + azoxystrobin 11 % (Custodia) and difenoconazole 11.4 % + azoxystrobin 18.2 % (Amistar Top) at 150 ppm, while hexaconazole 5 % emulsifiable concentrate (EC), propiconazole 25 % EC and azoxystrobin 23 % suspension concentrate (SC) showed substantial inhibition. Among homoeopathic treatments, Calcarea carbonica and Thuja occidentalis achieved over 70 % inhibition. By integrating experimental results with published literature, patents and prior studies, this work provides a robust, interdisciplinary framework connecting plant pathology, homoeopathy and sustainable agriculture. The findings reveal a breakthrough: ultra-diluted biological preparations can complement fungicides, reduce chemical dependency, mitigate resistance development and support low-input, organic and export-oriented spice production systems. Economically, adoption of these strategies could protect yield worth millions of USD annually, while minimising environmental and regulatory risks. Future research should focus on field validation, application optimisation, biochar integration and techno-economic modelling, ensuring global applicability and maximising agronomic, ecological and financial benefits.

References

  1. 1. Joshi S. Medicinal plants. 1st ed. Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publisher; 2000.
  2. 2. India. Spices statistics at a glance. Calicut: Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, Government of India; 2023.
  3. 3. Raeisi S, Sharifi-Rad M, Quek SY, Shabanpour B, Sharifi-Rad J. Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of shallot (Allium ascalonicum L.) fruit and ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L. Sprague) seed extracts in semi-fried coated rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fillets for shelf-life extension. LWT Food Sci Technol. 2016;65:112–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2015.07.064
  4. 4. Rajeshwari CU, Vinay KAV, Andallu B. Therapeutic potential of ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi L.) seeds. In: Preedy VR, Watson RR, Patel VB, editors. Nuts and seeds in health and disease prevention. London: Academic Press; 2011. p.153–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-375688-6.10017-9
  5. 5. Morsy NF. Production of thymol-rich extracts from ajwain (Carum copticum L.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) using supercritical CO2. Ind Crops Prod. 2020;145:112072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.112072
  6. 6. Agrawal S, Sastry ED, Sharma RK. Seed spices: Production, quality, export. Jaipur: Pointer Publishers; 2001.
  7. 7. Chattopadhyay C, Meena PD, Meena RL, Kumar A, Awasthi RP, Singh SN. Sclerotinia stem rot of Indian mustard: An overview. Phytopathology. 2015;105:1440–51.
  8. 8. Albert D, Dumonceaux T, Carisse O, Beaulieu C, Filion M. Combining desirable traits for a good biocontrol strategy against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Microorganisms. 2022;10(6):1189. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms10061189
  9. 9. Alkooranee JT, Aledan TR, Ali AK, Lu G, Zhang X, Wu J, et al. Detecting the hormonal pathways in oilseed rape behind induced systemic resistance by Trichoderma harzianum TH12 to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. PLoS One. 2017;12(1):e0168850. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168850
  10. 10. Rathi A, Jattan M, Punia R, Singh S, Kumar P, Avtar R, et al. Morphological and molecular diversity of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum infecting Indian mustard. J Plant Biochem Biotechnol. 2018;71(3):407–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42360-018-0054-7
  11. 11. Punia R, Avtar R, Singh M, Singh VK, Mahavir, Kumar S, et al. Phenotyping of F2 populations of Indian mustard for Sclerotinia rot caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum under artificial inoculation conditions. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2020;8(3):1309–11. https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i3r.9379
  12. 12. Kewate B, Singh D, Singh V, Malik NP, Kumar R. In vitro evaluation of botanicals against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary causing stem rot disease in rapeseed-mustard. J Pharmacogn Phytochem. 2020;9(8):3733–41. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.908.431
  13. 13. White TJ, Bruns T, Lee S, Taylor J. Amplification and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics. In: Innis MA, Gelfand DH, Sninsky JJ, White TJ, editors. PCR protocols: a guide to methods and applications. New York: Academic Press Inc.; 1990. p. 315–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1
  14. 14. Jan N, Bhat MY, Wani AH, Malik MA, Jan M. Incidence of white mould of bean and characterisation of its causal pathogen, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, in Kashmir Valley, India. Arch Phytopathol Plant Prot. 2023;56(8):636–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2023.2213396
  15. 15. Zamani-Noor N, Brand S, Noshin F, Söchting HP. Variation in pathogenicity and subsequent production of sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum isolates in different cover crops, flower strips and weeds. Plant Dis. 2024;108. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-05-23-0850-RE
  16. 16. Schmitz H. Poisoned food technique for the evaluation of fungicidal properties of chemicals. Ind Eng Chem. 1930;22(4):361–63. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac50072a004
  17. 17. Vincent JM. Distortion of fungal hyphae in the presence of certain inhibitors. Nature. 1927;159:180.
  18. 18. Rissato BB, Stangarlin JR, Coltro-Roncato S, Dildey ODF, Gonçalves EDV, Lorenzetti E, et al. Control of white mold in bean plants by homeopathic medicines. Afr J Agric Res. 2016;11(24):2174–78. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2016.10988
  19. 19. Damin S, Alves LFA, Bonato CM. In vitro effect of homeopathic medicines on Beauveria bassiana (Bals) Vuill. Rev Bras Agroecol. 2015;9(3):41–53.
  20. 20. Sattar A, Alam M. Sclerotinia color rot of Trachyspermum ammi. Indian J Plant Pathol. 1993;11:10–11.
  21. 21. Bilgrami KS, Jamaluddin, Rizvi MA. The fungi of India. Part III. New Delhi: Today and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers; 1991. p. 798.
  22. 22. Sarbhoy AK, Agarwal DK, Varshney JL. Fungi of India 1982-1992. New Delhi: CBS Publishers and Distributors; 1996. p. 350
  23. 23. Rai D, Ranjan RK, Dwivedi M. Detection of Sclerotinia rot of basil, caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, for the first time in Bihar, India. Australas Plant Dis Notes. 2024;19(1):1–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13314-024-00540-7
  24. 24. Chaudhari PK. Evaluation of homeopathic drugs against Drechslera oryzae (Breda de Haan) Subramanian & Jain causing brown leaf spot of rice. [MSc thesis]. Pusa: Rajendra Agricultural University; 2004.
  25. 25. Kumar D, Biswas SK, Kumar S, Jaisval GK, Singh D, Kumar R, et al. Homeopathic medicines as new strategy against plant pathogenic fungi. Ann Phytomed. 2023;12(1):1–15. https://doi.org/10.54085/ap.2023.12.1.19
  26. 26. Harne AR. Studies on dry root rot of cluster bean (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.) Taub) incited by Rhizoctonia bataticola. [MSc thesis]. Gwalior: RVSKVV; 2019.
  27. 27. Dhakad. Studies on root rot of cluster bean (Rhizoctonia bataticola) through botanicals, homeopathic drugs and animal products. [MSc thesis]. Gwalior: RVSKVV; 2019.
  28. 28. Botelho dos Reis AC, Ottoni JR. Antifungal activity of homeopathic medicines against the white mold causing agent Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Acta Sci Biol Sci. 2021;43(1). https://doi.org/10.4025/actascibiolsci.v43i1.56548
  29. 29. Shivpuri A, Gupta RBL. Evaluation of different fungicides and plant extracts against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum causing stem rot of mustard. Indian Phytopathol. 2001;54:272–4.
  30. 30. Chattopadhyay C, Meena PD, Kumar S. Management of Sclerotinia rot of Indian mustard using eco-friendly strategies. J Mycol Plant Pathol. 2002;32:194–200.
  31. 31. Chand PC, Rai DR, Singh SN. In vitro evaluation of different fungicides on the mycelial growth and sclerotia production of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Indian Phytopathol. 2009;62(1):37–40.
  32. 32. Pandey P, Kumar R, Mishra P. Integrated approach for the management of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary causing stem rot of chickpea. Indian Phytopathol. 2011;64:37–40.
  33. 33. Rakesh, Rathi AS, Kumar A, Singh H. Evaluation of fungicides for the control of Sclerotinia stem rot of Indian mustard caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary. J Appl Nat Sci. 2016;8(1):441–44. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v8i1.813
  34. 34. Fagodiya RK. Physiological and management studies of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary causing stem rot of coriander. [MSc thesis]. Jobner: SKN Agriculture University; 2016. p. 50–74.
  35. 35. Kumawat R. Physiological and management studies of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary causing Sclerotinia rot of fennel. [MSc thesis]. Jobner: SKN College of Agriculture; 2017.
  36. 36. Meena N. Sclerotinia rot of tomato incited by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary and its management. [MSc thesis]. Jobner: SKN College of Agriculture; 2018.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.