Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
Plant Science Today (PST)

Research Articles

Vol. 13 No. 2 (2026)

Temporal dynamics of basal soil respiration in agroforestry systems in dry-tropical Central India

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.12822
Submitted
19 November 2025
Published
08-04-2026

Abstract

Agri-silviculture and agri-horticulture systems, which integrate trees and crops on the same land, are important sustainable land-use strategies. However, the dynamics of basal soil respiration (BSR) in such systems are not fully unravelled. This study investigated the effects of agroforestry systems on BSR dynamics [rate (RBSR) and cumulative CO2 evolution (CBSR)] and identified the roles of soil organic carbon (SOC), soil moisture content (SMC) and dehydrogenase (DHA) enzyme activity on BSR. Basal soil respiration was quantified using the alkali trap method over 15 days at 3-day intervals from pre-sowing to crop maturity under 2 agroforestry systems- Tectona grandis L.f. (teak; agri-silviculture) and Phyllanthus emblica L. (aonla; agri-horticulture) and compared with a sole cropping system without trees. Black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) and mustard (Brassica  juncea (L.) Czern.) were cultivated as understory crops. Distinct temporal dynamics in BSR (RBSR and CBSR) were observed. In black gram, CBSR increased from pre-sowing to flowering (by 24.7 % and 32.4 %) and declined toward maturity (by 10.8 % and 15.9 %) at 0–30 and 30–60 cm depths, respectively. The maximum CBSR was observed in the teak-based system at flowering stage of black gram and mustard that ranged from 2.5–13.3 and 1.9–11.2 mg CO2–C 100 g-1 soil at 0–30 and 30–60 cm depths, respectively. Similarly, at flowering stage of the crops, CBSR ranged from 1.2–11.6 and 0.9–9.1 mg CO2-C 100 g-1 soil and 2.3–9.2 and 1.3–6.1 mg CO2-C 100 g-1 soil in aonla-based system and sole cropping at 0–30 and 30–60 cm depths, respectively. DHA activity (67–77 % variance) was the best predictor of CBSR followed by SOC (36–78 % variance) while SMC played a fair predictor (21–25 % variance). The study highlights the potential of agroforestry systems to enhance soil biological activity and managing soil carbon while supporting sustainable crop productivity.

References

  1. 1. Raj A, Jhariya MK. Carbon sequestration in agroforestry and horticulture based farming systems: mitigating climate change and advancing food and nutrition security. In: Emerging solutions in sustainable food and nutrition security. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2023. p. 143–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40908-0_7
  2. 2. Ilakiya T, Parameswari E, Swarnapriya R, Yazhini G, Kalaiselvi P, Davamani V, et al. Unlocking the carbon sequestration potential of horticultural crops. C. 2024;10(3):65. https://doi.org/10.3390/c10030065
  3. 3. Singh B, Dwivedi SK. Horticulture-based agroforestry systems for improved environmental quality and nutritional security in Indian temperate region. In: Agroforestry: Anecdotal to modern science. Singapore: Springer Singapore; 2018. p. 245–61. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-7650-3_9
  4. 4. Raj A, Jhariya MK, Yadav DK, Banerjee A. Agroforestry with horticulture: A new strategy toward a climate-resilient forestry approach. In: Agroforestry and Climate Change. Oakville: Apple Academic Press; 2019. p. 67–96. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429057274-3
  5. 5. Bot A, Benites J. The importance of soil organic matter: Key to drought-resistant soil and sustained food production. Rome: Food Agric Organ; 2005.
  6. 6. Jansson JK, Hofmockel KS. Soil microbiomes and climate change. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2020;18(1):35–46. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-019-0265-7
  7. 7. Fierer N, Wood SA, de Mesquita CP. How microbes can, and cannot, be used to assess soil health. Soil Biol Biochem. 2021;153:108111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.108111
  8. 8. Balogh J, Pintér K, Fóti S, Cserhalmi D, Papp M, Nagy Z. Dependence of soil respiration on soil moisture, clay content, soil organic matter and CO2 uptake in dry grasslands. Soil Biol Biochem. 2011;43(5):1006–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.01.017
  9. 9. Ťupek B, Lehtonen A, Manzoni S, Bruni E, Baldrian P, Richy E, et al. Reduced microbial respiration sensitivity to soil moisture following long-term N fertilization enhances soil C retention in a boreal Scots pine forest. EGUsphere. 2024;2024:1–23. https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2024-3813
  10. 10. Cardoso EJ, Vasconcellos RL, Bini D, Miyauchi MY, Santos CA, Alves PR, et al. Soil health: looking for suitable indicators. What should be considered to assess the effects of use and management on soil health? Sci Agric. 2013;70:274–89. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-90162013000400009
  11. 11. Zuo XY, Xiao Q, Wu L, Yang GR, Zhang WJ. Response of soil basal respiration to fertilization across China’s croplands. J Plant Nutr Fert. 2023;29(8):1379–89.
  12. 12. Wang D, Yu X, Jia G, Qin W, Shan Z. Variations in soil respiration at different soil depths and its influencing factors in forest ecosystems in the mountainous area of North China. Forests. 2019;10(12):1081. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10121081
  13. 13. Wang X, Ren T. Spatial and temporal variability of soil respiration between soybean crop rows as measured continuously over a growing season. Sustainability. 2017;9(3):436. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9030436
  14. 14. Bhandari D, Bilandžija N, Krička T, Zdunić Z, Ghimire S, Piskáčková TR, et al. Soil respiration in maize, wheat and barley across a growing season: findings from Croatia’s continental region. Sustainability. 2025;17(9):4207. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17094207
  15. 15. Lee KH, Jose S. Soil respiration and microbial biomass in a pecan–cotton alley cropping system in Southern USA. Agrofor Syst. 2003;58(1):45–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025404019211
  16. 16. Pan J, Chen S, He D, Zhou H, Ning K, Ma N, et al. Agroforestry increases soil carbon sequestration, especially in arid areas: A global meta-analysis. Catena. 2025;249:108667. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2024.108667
  17. 17. Bazie HR, Sanou J, Gnankambary Z, Some PP, Zombre G, Bayala J. Separating autotrophic respiration due to roots from soil heterotrophic respiration in an agroforestry parkland system in Saponé, Burkina Faso. Int J Biol Chem Sci. 2014;8(5):2143-54. https://doi.org/10.4314/ijbcs.v8i5.19
  18. 18. Walkley A, Black IA. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 1934;37(1):29–38. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-193401000-00003
  19. 19. Alef K. Soil respiration. In: Alef K, Nannipieri P, editors. Methods in Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry. San Diego: Academic Press; 1995. p. 214–15.
  20. 20. Klein DA, Loh TC, Goulding RL. A rapid procedure to evaluate the dehydrogenase activity of soils low in organic matter. Soil Biol Biochem. 1971;3(4):385–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(71)90049-6
  21. 21. Schnecker J, Baldaszti L, Gündler P, Pleitner M, Sandén T, Simon E, et al. Seasonal dynamics of soil microbial growth, respiration, biomass and carbon use efficiency in temperate soils. Geoderma. 2023;440:116693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116693
  22. 22. Neogi S, Dash PK, Bhattacharyya P, Padhy SR, Roy KS, Nayak AK. Partitioning of total soil respiration into root, rhizosphere and basal-soil CO2 fluxes in contrasting rice production systems. Soil Res. 2020;58(6):592–601. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR20006
  23. 23. Zhang S, Hussain HA, Wang L, Hussain S, Li B, Zhou H, et al. Responses of soil respiration and organic carbon to straw mulching and ridge tillage in maize field of a triple cropping system in the hilly region of southwest China. Sustainability. 2019;11(11):3068. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11113068
  24. 24. Bobul'ská L, Fazekašová D, Angelovičová L, Kotorová D. Impact of ecological and conventional farming systems on chemical and biological soil quality indices in a cold mountain climate in Slovakia. Biol Agric Hortic. 2015;31(3):205–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/01448765.2014.1002537
  25. 25. Mulinge JM, Saha HM, Mounde LG, Wasilwa LA. Effect of legume cover crops on soil moisture and orange root distribution. Int J Plant Soil Sci. 2017;16(4):1. https://doi.org/10.9734/IJPSS/2017/32934
  26. 26. Debnath S, Attri BL, Kumar A, Kishor A, Narayan R, Sinha K, et al. Influence of peach (Prunus persica Batsch) phenological stage on the short-term changes in oxidizable and labile pools of soil organic carbon and activities of carbon-cycle enzymes in the North-Western Himalayas. Pedosphere. 2020;30(5):638–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(20)60026-1
  27. 27. Anjali KS, Balasubramanian A, Radhakrishnan S, Ramah K, Boominathan P, Hari Prasath CN. Microbial population ecology under teak (Tectona grandis Linn. F.) fertigation research trial in farm conditions of western Tamil Nadu. Appl Ecol Environ Res. 2023;21(3):1855-67. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/2103_18551867
  28. 28. Komara LL, Sulastri E, Murtinah V, Sasmita N. Assessment of soil respiration under different land use in East Kutai, Indonesia. Agro Bali. 2025;8(1):186-97. https://doi.org/10.37637/ab.v8i1.2022
  29. 29. Ashick Rajah R, Radhakrishnan S, Balasubramanian A, Balamurugan J, Ravi R, Sivaprakash M, et al. Growth variability of farm grown teak in response to climatic and soil factors across three agroclimatic zones of Tamil Nadu, India. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):10862. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-92770-7
  30. 30. Goldberg SD, Zhao Y, Harrison RD, Monkai J, Li Y, Chau K, et al. Soil respiration in sloping rubber plantations and tropical natural forests in Xishuangbanna, China. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 2017;249:237-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2017.08.001
  31. 31. Mehta N, Dinakaran J, Patel S, Laskar AH, Yadava MG, Ramesh R, et al. Changes in litter decomposition and soil organic carbon in a reforested tropical deciduous cover (India). Ecol Res. 2013;28(2):239-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11284-012-1011-z
  32. 32. Rathore AC, Lal H, Jayaprakash J, Chaturvedi OP. Productivity evaluation of Indian gooseberry cultivars (Emblica officinalis Gaertn) on degraded land under rainfed conditions of north-west Himalayan region. Indian J Soil Conserv. 2011;39(1):63-6.
  33. 33. Tiwari G, Singh AK. Interannual litter study in teak plantation site of Raigarh Forest, Chhattisgarh, India. J Biodivers Environ Sci. 2013;3(5):41-46.
  34. 34. Singh MK, Yadav SK, Rajput BS, Sharma P. Carbon storage and economic efficiency of fruit-based systems in semi-arid region: a symbiotic approach for sustainable agriculture and climate resilience. Carbon Res. 2024;3(1):33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44246-024-00114-3
  35. 35. Tomar U, Baishya R. Seasonality and moisture regime control soil respiration, enzyme activities and soil microbial biomass carbon in a semi-arid forest of Delhi, India. Ecol Process. 2020;9(1):50. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-020-00252-7
  36. 36. Cook FJ, Orchard VA. Relationships between soil respiration and soil moisture. Soil Biol Biochem. 2008;40(5):1013–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.12.012
  37. 37. Bojarszczuk J, Księżak J, Gałązka A. Soil respiration depending on different agricultural practices before maize sowing. Plant Soil Environ. 2017;63(10):454–60. https://doi.org/10.17221/597/2017-PSE
  38. 38. Miao Y, Han H, Du Y, Zhang Q, Jiang L, Hui D, et al. Nonlinear responses of soil respiration to precipitation changes in a semiarid temperate steppe. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):45782. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep45782
  39. 39. Flanagan LB, Sharp EJ, Letts MG. Response of plant biomass and soil respiration to experimental warming and precipitation manipulation in a Northern Great Plains grassland. Agric For Meteorol. 2013;173:40–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2013.01.002
  40. 40. Debnath S, Patra AK, Ahmed N, Kumar S, Dwivedi BS. Assessment of microbial biomass and enzyme activities in soil under temperate fruit crops in north western Himalayan region. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 2015;15(4):848–66. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-95162015005000059
  41. 41. Debnath S, Yadav SL, Ashajyothi M, Yadav A, Ram A, Kumar S, et al. Assessing the spatial heterogeneity in soil microbial populations in agroforestry systems of semiarid central India. J Indian Soc Soil Sci. 2025;73(1):114-21. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-0228.2025.00011.6
  42. 42. Ren C, Wang T, Xu Y, Deng J, Zhao F, Yang G, et al. Differential soil microbial community responses to the linkage of soil organic carbon fractions with respiration across land-use changes. For Ecol Manage. 2018;409:170-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.11.011

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.