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Plant Science Today (PST)

Research Articles

Vol. 13 No. 2 (2026)

Valorisation of red gram (Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth) milling by-products into reconstituted dal analogues: Optimisation of extrusion cooking parameters

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.14463
Submitted
8 March 2026
Published
04-05-2026 — Updated on 13-05-2026
Versions

Abstract

The accumulation of milling by-products presents a significant challenge in pulse processing, necessitating sustainable valorisation strategies to support global food security. This study aimed to develop and optimise quick-cooking dal analogues from red gram (Cajanus cajan, var. PRG-176) brokens and fines using twin-screw extrusion technology. A four-factor, five-level central composite design (CCD) was employed to evaluate the impact of barrel temperature (171.46 °C), feed moisture (18.48 %), feed rate (60 kg/hr) and screw speed (220 rpm) on the functional and cooking quality of the analogues. Statistical analysis via response surface methodology (RSM) revealed that barrel temperature and feed moisture were the primary drivers of the starch-protein matrix (p <0.05). The integrity index, reflecting structural stability, ranged from 3.72 % to 18.60 % and was positively correlated with product hardness. Optimised analogues exhibited significantly shorter cooking times than natural pulses, with a strong correlation (r = 0.84) between hardness and cooking duration. Colour dynamics were governed by the Maillard reaction, where increased thermal intensity decreased lightness (L*) and increased redness (a*). A negative correlation between hardness and solids loss (r = -0.62) confirmed that a well-gelatinised matrix minimises nutrient leaching during hydrothermal treatment. The study demonstrates that pigeon pea milling by-products can be successfully upcycled into high-quality dal analogues that mimic the aesthetic and functional properties of natural tur dal. These findings provide a technical framework to produce value-added, plant-based protein alternatives that offer superior convenience and reduced energy consumption for the consumer market.

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