Bioactivities of Prunus mahaleb: A Mini Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.2492Keywords:
Antioxidant, Bioactivity, Edible oil, Polyphenol, Prunus mahalebAbstract
The mahaleb cherry, which has the scientific name Prunus mahaleb L., is a fragrant shrub plant belonging to the Rosaceae family. The plant is commonly cultivated in the Mediterranean area. The people cultivated it for its essential oil and seeds, which have great therapeutic and nutritional value. It is widely distributed over North Africa, Central Asia, and Central-South Europe. The plant contains a variety of active constituents like coumarins, vital oils, polyphonic ingredients, and other phytochemical compounds that possess many pharmacological activities capable of improving people’s health. These activities include antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, gastro-protective, neuroprotective, and diabetic management actions. Overall data for this literature review was collected from online sources such as Google Scholar, Science Direct, Scopus, Research Gate, Elsevier, PubMed, and Web Science. In addition to that, the library of the pharmacognosy department was utilized to collect supplementary information on photochemical constituents, pharmacognosy, and pharmacological applications of mahaleb cherry. The gathered data was carefully examined and authenticated. The main aim of this review article is to uncover potential therapeutic activities of this plant that could be valuable in the future for therapeutic nutrition, as well as food and pharmaceutical industries.
Downloads
References
Komarov VL, Shishkin B, Yuzepchuk SV, Fedorov AA, Kostina KF, Kovalev NV, et al. Flora of the USSR-Volume X: Rosaceae - Rosoideae, Prunoideae. Keter Press, Jerusalem. 1970. https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86191147.
Martín RA, Sergio MZ. Wild cherries invading natural grasslands: unraveling colonization history from population structure and spatial patterns. Plant Ecology. 2013; 214 (11):1299-1307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-013-0252-4.
Gerardi C, Tommasi N, Albano C, Blando F, Rescio L, Pinthus E, et al. Prunus mahaleb L. fruit extracts: A novel source for natural food pigments. European Food Research and Technology. 2015; 241(5): 683–695. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-015-2495-x.
Zan S, Wang R, Zhang F, Zhang D, Meng X. Composition analysis of rootstock cherry (Prunus mahaleb L.), a potential source of human nutrition and dietary supplements. European Food Research and Technology. 2022; 248(22):1421–1435.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-022-03965-5.
Faehaa A , Ghada A. Taqa , Tahani AA, Amer AT. Determination of the ED50 and antinociceptive activity of mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb L.) in mice. Plant Archives. 2020 ; 20 (1):2808-2811. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ghada-Taqa/publication/341568058.
Farag MA, Khattab AR, Shamma S, Afifi SM. Profiling of Primary Metabolites and Volatile Determinants in Mahlab Cherry (Prunus mahaleb L.) Seeds in the Context of Its Different Varieties and Roasting as Analyzed Using Chemometric Tools. Foods. 2021;10(4):728. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10040728.
Mariod AA, Ibrahim RM, Ismail M, Ismail N. Antioxidant activities of phenolic rich fractions (PRFs) obtained from black mahlab (Monechma ciliatum) and white mahlab (Prunus mahaleb) seedcakes. Food Chem. 2010; 118(1), 120–127.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.04.085.
Zühal BG, Iclal S, Akito N, Mustafa AY, Basaran AA. Anti-tyrosinase and antimelanogenic effect of cinnamic acid derivatives from Prunus mahaleb L.: Phenolic composition, isolation, identification and inhibitory activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2023; 310: 116378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2023.116378.
Abedian M, Talebi M, Sayed-Tabatabaei BE, Ghobadi C. Chloroplast Microsatellite Diversity Among and Within Prunus mahaleb L. and P. avium L. Species. Journal of Agriculture Science. 2012; 4(5) , P. 191. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jas.v4n5p191.
Blando F, Albano C, LiuY, Nicoletti I, Corradini D, Tommasi N, et al. Polyphenolic composition and antioxidant activity of the under-utilized Prunus mahaleb L. fruit. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2016; 96, 2641–2649. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.7381.
Karlovic K, Jeran N, Purgar D, Židovec V, Bolaric S, Vokurka A. Sustainable landscaping with Prunus. Acta Horticulturae. 2020; 11:75-84. 10.1766/ActaHortic.2020.1288.11.
Popescu I, Caudullo G. Prunus cerasifera in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species. Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg. 2016: e016531+.
Chen X, Shen X, Jiang D. Complete chloroplast genome sequence of Prunus mahaleb. Mitochondrial DNA Part B. 2019; 4, 2204–2205. https://doi.org/10.1080/23802359.2019.1624217.
Hrotkó K. Potentials in Prunus mahaleb L. for cherry rootstock breeding. Sci. Hortic. 2016; 205, 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2016.04.015.
Guest E, Townsend C. Flora of Iraq; Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Iraq: Baghdad, Iraq. 1966; 3: 49.
Hussein ZN, Azeez HA, Salih T. Antioxidant Activity of the Prunus mahaleb Seed Oil Extracts Using n-Hexane and Petroleum Ether Solvents: in-silico and in-vitro Studies. Appl. Sci. 2023; 13(13): 7430.https://doi.org/10.3390/app13137430.
Nadaf M, Amiri MS, Joharchi MR, Omidipour R, Moazezi M, Mohaddesi B, et al. Ethnobotanical Diversity of Trees and Shrubs of Iran: A Comprehensive Review. International Journal of Plant Biology. 2023; 14(1):120-146. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijpb14010011.
Palasciano M, Ferrara G, Camposeo S, Laghezza L. Studies on Prunus mahaleb in Apulia. Ital. J. Agron. 2009; 4, 705–708.
Ieri F, Pinelli P, Romani A. Simultaneous determination of anthocyanins, coumarins and phenolic acids in fruits, kernels and liqueur of Prunus mahaleb L. Food Chem. 2012; 135: 2157–2162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.07.083.
Lee CK, Park KK, Hwang, J K, Lee SK, Chung WY. The pericarp extract of Prunus persica attenuates chemotherapy-induced acute nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity in mice. Journal of Medici- nal Food. 2008; 11(2):302–306. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2007.545.
Akbari F, Azadbakht M, Dashti A, Vahedi L, Davoodi A. Effect of Prunus Mahaleb L. Seed Extract on Ethylene glycol- and Ammonium Chloride-Induced Urolithiasis in BALB/c Mice. Iran J Med Sci. 2020; 45(2):134-139. https://doi.org/10.30476/IJMS.2019.45774.
Dikbay?r CY, Elmac? Y. Mahaleb Kernel Powder Improves Quality Characteristics of Sodium-Reduced Bread. CJAFST. 2023; 1(1): 52-64.
Rana VS, Zarea SE, Sharma S, Rana N, Kumar V, Sharma U. Differential response of the leaf fruit ratio and girdling on the leaf nutrient concentrations, yield, and quality of nectarine. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation. 2023;42(4):2360-73.
Asadi-Samani M, Moradi MT, Mahmoodnia L, Alaei S, Asadi-Samani F, Luther T. Traditional uses of medicinal plants to prevent and treat diabetes; an updated review of ethnobotanical studies in Iran. J Nephropathol. 2017; 6 (3): 118-125. https://doi.org/10.15171/jnp.2017.20.
Nasab FK, Khosravi AR. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of Sirjan in Kerman Province, Iran. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2014; 154 (1):190–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.04.003.
Bahmani MP, Bahmani M, Shahsavari S, Naghdi N, Ezatpour B, Moradniani M, et al. A review of the antiparasitic medicinal plants used in ethnobotany of different regions of Iran. Der Pharma Chem. 2016; 8(2):134–138. http://eprints.medilam.ac.ir/id/eprint/1395
Abdelgadir AA, Ahmed ME, Ahmed EM. Traditional Uses of Herbal Medicines in Khartoum and Gezira state (Central Sudan). Arab. J. Med. Aromat. Plants. 2021; 7(1):29–73.https://doi.org/10.48347/IMIST.PRSM/ajmap-v7i1.22273.
Elif EE, Erdal Gülden G, Deniz A. Chemical composition, antifungal activity, antifungal mechanism, and interaction manner of the fatty acid of Prunus mahaleb L. with fluconazole. International Journal of Environmental Health Research. 2022; 32(10): 2337-2349. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2021.1963686.
Orlando G, Chiavaroli A, Adorisio S, Delfino DV, Brunetti L, Recinella L, et al. Unravelling the Phytochemical Composition and the Pharmacological Properties of an Optimized Extract from the Fruit from Prunus mahaleb L.: From Traditional Liqueur Market to the Pharmacy Shelf. Molecules. 2021; 26(15):4422.https://doi.org/ 10.3390/molecules26154422.
Seyedeh FT, Ahmad A, Javad A. Evaluation of Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity in Ten Selected Mahaleb (Prunus mahaleb L.) Genotypes . Int J Hort Sci. Technol. 2015; 2(2): 187-197.
Sargar NA, Pareek S, Bhardwaj R, Vyas N. Bioactive Compounds of Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) L.). In: Murthy H., Bapat V. (eds) Bioactive Compounds in Underutilized Fruits and Nuts.Reference Series in Phytochemistry [e-book]. Springer,Cham; 2020, p. 123- 143. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30182-8_10.
Kahif G, Isam AM, Süleyman D, Nurhan U,Gbemisola FJ, Fahad A, et al. The Effect of Heating Temperature on Total Phenolic Content, Antioxidant Activity, and Phenolic Compounds of Plum and Mahaleb Fruits. International Journal of Food Engineering. 2019; 15(11-12): 20170302. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijfe-2017-0302.
Nabaa MI, Enas JK, Shihab HM. Isolation of Catchin and Epigallocatchin From Iraqi Rhus coriaria By Preparative High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (PHPLC). Iraqi J Pharm Sci. 2022; 31( 2 ): 271-282.https://doi.org/10.31351/vol31iss2pp271-282.
Maja N, Dragana DZ, Ivanka ?, Mekjell M, Biljana R, Milica FA. Chapter 56 - Cold pressed oils from genus Prunus, Editor(s): Mohamed Fawzy Ramadan, Cold Pressed Oils [e-book]. Academic Press; 2020:637-658. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818188-1.00056-6.
Gerardi C, Frassinetti S, Caltavuturo L, Leone A, Lecci R, Calabriso N, et al. Anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-mutagenic activities of a Prunus mahaleb L. anthocyanin-rich fruit extract. Journal of Functional Foods. 2016; 27: 537-548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2016.09.024.
Berrin O, Ufuk K, Durmu? K, Nazim S. Evaluation of the in vitro bioactivities of Mahaleb Cherry (Prunus mahaleb L. Romanian Biotechnological Letters. 2012; 17: 7863-7872.
Seyyednejad SM, Maleki S, Damabi NM, Motamedi H. Antibacterial activity of Prunus mahaleb and Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) against some pathogen. Asian J Biol Sci. 2008; 1(1): 51-55.?DOI: 10.3923/ajbs.2008.51.55
Bayramc? NS, Erdönmez D, Budak Y, E?ri Ö. Antibacterial activity of ethanol extracts of mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb L.) against some bacteria. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 2013; 24(S1):113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2013.05.349.
Al-Nagerabi SAF, Al-Maqbali MSR, Alabri KMS, Elshafei AE. An in Vitro Antifungal and Antiaflatoxigenic Properties of Commiphora myrrha and Prunus mahaleb. Journal of Food Research. 2021; 10 (6):10. https://doi.org/10.5539/jfr.v10n6p10.
Liu Q, Fang J, Chen P, Die Y, Wang J, Liu Z, et al. Chicoric acid improves neuron survival against inflammation by promoting mitochondrial function and energy metabolism. Food Funct. 2019; 10 (9): 6157–6169. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9FO01417A
Bonaventura MVMD, Martinelli I, Moruzzi M, Bonaventura EMD, Giusepponi ME, Polidori C, et al. Brain alterations in high fat diet induced obesity: Effects of tart cherry seeds and juice. Nutrients. 2020; 12 (3): 623. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030623.
Liu Q, Chen Y, Shen C, Xiao Y, Wang Y, Liu, Z, et al. Chicoric acid supplementation prevents systemic inflammation-induced memory impairment and amyloidogenesis via inhibition of NF-?B. FASEB J. 2017; 31 (4): 1494–1507.https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.201601071R.
Sungnak W, HuangN, Bécavin C, Berg M, Queen R, Litvinukova M, et al. SARS-CoV-2 entry factors are highly expressed in nasal epithelial cells together with innate immune genes. Nat. Med. 2020; 26, 681–687. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0868-6.
Mititelu RR, P?dureanu R, B?c?noiu M, P?dureanu V, Docea AO, Calina D, et al. Inflammatory and Oxidative Stress Markers—Mirror Tools in Rheumatoid Arthritis. Biomedicines. 2020; 8(5):125. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8050125.
Salehi B, Quispe C, Chamkhi I, El Omari N, Balahbib A, Sharifi-Rad J, et al. Pharmacological properties of chalcones: a review of preclinical including molecular mechanisms and clinical evidence. Front in Pharmacology. 2021; 11: 592654. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.592654.
Salehi B, Prakash Mishra A, Nigam M, Karazhan N, Shukla I, Kieltyka-Dadasiewicz A, et al. Ficus plants: state of the art from a phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological perspective. Phytotherapy Res. 2021; 35 (3):1187–1217. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6884.
Salehi B, Sharifi-Rad J, Cappellini F, Reiner Ž, Zorzan D, Imran M, et al. The therapeutic potential of anthocyanins: current approaches based on their molecular mechanism of action. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2020 (11): 1300. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.01300.
Oskoueian A, Haghihi RS, Ebrahimi M, Saad WZ, Omar AR,Ho YW. Bioactive compounds, antioxidants, tyrosinase inhibition, xanthine oxidase inhibition, anticholinesterase and antiinflammatory activities of Prunus mahaleb L. Seed. J. Med. Plants Res. 2012;6(2): 225–233. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms12128610.
Gercek YC, Ozyurt D, Erol O, Ozturk BD, OZ GC, et al. Comparison of polyphenolic profile and antioxidant capacity of Prunus subgenus cerasus L. species from Turkey. Eur Food Res Technol 249, 1363–1376 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-023-04219-8.
Özçelik B, Koca U, Kaya DA, ?ekerolu N. Evaluation of the in vitro bioactivities of mahaleb cherry (Prunus mahaleb L.). Rom. Biotechnol Lett. 2012; 17(6): 7863–7872.
Güven ZB, Alshehri O, Yüce N, Bakan E, Demirci B, Yilmaz MA, et al. Chemical composition, nutritional values, elemental analysis and biological properties of Prunus mahaleb L.: From waste to new potential sources for food, cosmetic and drug industry. Food Bioscience.2023; 53: 102632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbio.2023.102632.
Cuevas-Rodriguez EO, Dia VP, Yousef GG, Garcia-Saucedo PA, Lopez-Medina J, Paredes-Lopez O, et al. Inhibition of pro-inflammatory responses and antioxidant capacity of Mexican blackberry (Rubus spp.) extracts. J Agric Food Chem. 2010; 58:9542–9548. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf102590p.
Stamler JS, Single D, Loscalzo J. Biochemistry of nitric oxide and its redox-activated forms. Science. 1992; 258: 1892–1902. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1281928.
Li Y, Zhang J.-J, Xu D.-P, Zhou T, Zhou Y, Li S, et al. Bioactivities and Health Benefits of Wild Fruits. Int J Mol Sci. 2016; 17: 1258. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081258.
Ferramosca A, Treppiccione L, Di Giacomo M, Aufiero VR, Mazzarella G, Maurano F, et al. Prunus Mahaleb Fruit Extract Prevents Chemically Induced Colitis and Enhances Mitochondrial Oxidative Metabolism via the Activation of the Nrf2 Pathway. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2019; 63: 1900350. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201900350
Lu ZY, Chen WC, Li YH, Li L, Zhang H, Pang Y, Xiao ZF, Xiao HW, Xiao Y. TNF-? enhances vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells via the NF-?B, ERK and JNK signaling pathways. Mol Med Rep. 2016;14(1):643-8. https://doi.org/10.3892/mmr.2016.5314. Epub 2016 May 19.
Schumski A, Winter C, Döring Y, et al. The ins and outs of myeloid cells in atherosclerosis. J Innate Immun 2018;10:479–86.https://doi.org/10.1159/000488091.
Jia Z, Nallasamy P, Liu D, Shah H, Li JZ, Chitrakar R, et al. Luteolin protects against vascular inflammation in mice and TNF-alpha-induced monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells via suppressing I?B?/NF-?B signaling pathway. J Nutr Biochem. 2015; 26(3):293-302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutbio.2014.11.008
Chen T, Zhang X, Zhu G, Liu H, Chen J, Wang Y, He X. Quercetin inhibits TNF-? induced HUVECs apoptosis and inflammation via downregulating NF-kB and AP-1 signaling pathway in vitro. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020; 99 (38):e22241. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000022241.
Chang BK. Comparison of in vitro methods for assessing cytotoxic activity against two pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell lines. Cancer Research. 1983; 43(7): 3147–3149.
Blumenthal RD, Goldenberg DM. Methods and goals for the use of in vitro and in vivo chemo-sensitivity testing. Molecular Biotechnology. 2007; 35(2): 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686104
Yang Y, Balcarcel RR. 24-well plate spectrophotometric assay for preliminary screening of metabolic activity. Assay Drug Dev Technol. 2003; 1(3):461-8. https://doi.org/10.1089/154065803322163777.
Lin RD, Chin YP, Lee MH. Antimicrobial activity of antibiotics in combination with natural flavonoids against clinical extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae. Phytother Res. 2005; 19(7):612-7. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/ptr.1695.
Xie Y., Yang W., Tang F., Chen X., Ren L. Antibacterial Activities of Flavonoids: Structure-Activity Relationship and Mechanism. Curr. Med. Chem. 2014; 22:132–149. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929867321666140916113443.
Cushnie TP, Lamb AJ. Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2005; 26(5):343-56. https://doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.09.002.
Górniak I, Bartoszewski R, Króliczewski J. Comprehensive review of antimicrobial activities of plant flavonoids. Phytochem. Rev. 2019;18:241–272. https://doi: 10.1007/s11101-018-9591-z.
Biharee A, Sharma A, Kumar A, Jaitak V. Fitoterapia Antimicrobial flavonoids as a potential substitute for overcoming antimicrobial resistance. Fitoterapia. 2020;146:104720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2020.104720.
Wu T, Zang X, He M, Pan S, Xu X. Structure–Activity Relationship of Flavonoids on Their Anti-Escherichia coli Activity and Inhibition of DNA Gyrase. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2013;61:8185–8190. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/jf402222v.
Donadio G, Mensitieri F, Santoro V, Parisi V, Bellone M, De Tommasi N, et al. Interactions with Microbial Proteins Driving the Antibacterial Activity of Flavonoids. Pharmaceutics. 2021;13:660.https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13050660.
Silva B, Souza MM, Badiale-Furlong E. Manuel M. Souza, and Eliana Badiale?Furlong. "Antioxidant and antifungal activity of phenolic compounds and their relation to aflatoxin B1 occurrence in soybeans (Glycine max L.). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture.2020, 100: 1256-1264.? https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.10137.
Telles AC, Kupski L, Furlong EB. Phenolic compound in beans as protection against mycotoxins. Food Chemistry.2017; 214:293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.07.079
Pagnussatt FA, Rodrigues V, Dora CL, Costa JAV, Putaux JL, Badiale Furlong E. Assessment of the encapsulation effect of phenolic compounds from Spirulina sp. LEB-18 on their antifusarium activities. Food Chemistry. 2016; 211:616–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.05.098
Tanaka Y, Sasaki N, Ohmiya A. Biosynthesis of Plant Pigments: Anthocyanins, Betalains and Carotenoids. Plant J. 2008; 54 (4): 733-749 . https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-313X.2008.03447.x.
Taghizadeh SF, Asgharzadeh A, Asili J, Sahebkar A, Shakeri A. Evaluation of Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity in Ten Selected Mahaleb (Prunus mahaleb L.) Genotypes. Int. J. Hortic. Sci. Technol. 2015; 2 (2): 187-97. https://doi.org/10.22059/ijhst.2015.56435.
Pehlivan FE. Antioxidant and phenolic profile of mahaleb plant as a functional food. J Agric Sci Technol. 2021; B 11: 46-51.? https://doi.org/10.17265/2161-6264/2021.01.004
Medini F, Fellah H, Ksouri R, Abdelly C. Total Phenolic, Flavonoid and Tannin Contents and Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Organic Extracts of Shoots of the Plant Limonium delicatulum. J. Taibah Univ. Sci. 2014; 8 (3): 216-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtusci.2014.01.003.
Downloads
Published
Versions
- 30-05-2024 (2)
- 12-05-2024 (1)
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Nabaa M. Ibrahim , Thukaa Z. Abdul-jalil, Ahmed Salim Mahmood
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright and Licence details of published articles
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Open Access Policy
Plant Science Today is an open access journal. There is no registration required to read any article. All published articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC Attribution 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).