Abiotic and biotic stresses, whether occurring individually or in combination, have profound effects on plant growth, development and overall productivity. Abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity and extreme temperatures disrupt physiological processes, while biotic stresses from pathogens, pests and herbivores impair plant defenses and nutrient dynamics. When these stressors act simultaneously, they interact in complex ways, often exacerbating damage and creating unique challenges for plants. Research has shown that plants employ sophisticated signalling networks involving hormones such as abscisic acid (ABA), salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene to coordinate responses to these stress combinations. These signalling pathways can have synergistic or antagonistic effects on stress tolerance, depending on the nature and timing of the stresses. Recent advancements in plant genetics, metabolomics, transcriptomics and genome-editing tools such as CRISPR-Cas (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) are providing new insights into how plants adapt to dynamic environments and cope with concurrent stresses. Additionally, microbial inoculations, including arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), are emerging as effective strategies to mitigate stress impacts by enhancing nutrient uptake, regulating hormone levels and improving overall plant resilience. This review emphasizes the need for an integrated approach to understanding the interactions between biotic and abiotic stressors. It highlights innovative strategies such as microbial applications, advanced breeding programs and biotechnological interventions to improve stress tolerance. Addressing these challenges is critical for developing resilient crop varieties capable of withstanding the impacts of climate change and ensuring sustainable agricultural productivity.
