Small millets are climate-resilient cereals cultivated primarily in rainfed and marginal ecosystems of Asia and Africa. These crops exhibit superior adaptability to abiotic stress due to features such as C4 photosynthesis, efficient water use and robust root systems. Among the various growth stages, the reproductive phase is highly sensitive to drought and other environmental stresses, often resulting in reduced pollen viability, poor seed set and diminished grain yield. However, small millets possess unique adaptive mechanisms, including early flowering, condensed reproductive duration, high reproductive efficiency and synchronized panicle emergence, which collectively enhance their performance under water-limited conditions. Hormonal regulation involving abscisic acid and cytokinins, coupled with increased antioxidant enzyme activity, contributes to the protection of reproductive tissues and ensures successful grain formation. Despite these advantages, detailed physiological and biochemical studies on their reproductive resilience remain limited. This review consolidates existing knowledge on the reproductive physiology of small millets under rainfed conditions, emphasizing mechanisms that sustain productivity and offering insights for future crop improvement strategies.
