Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
Plant Science Today (PST)

Review Articles

Vol. 13 No. sp2 (2026): Recent Advances in Agriculture

Decoding the hidden half: Advances in root growth dynamics and functional architecture of maize (Zea mays L.)

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.14737
Submitted
27 March 2026
Published
21-06-2026

Abstract

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a major cereal crop whose productivity across diverse agro-ecological environments is strongly influenced by belowground traits. The root system functions as the primary plant-soil interface, regulating water and nutrient uptake, providing mechanical support and enabling adaptive responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. Despite its central importance, maize root biology has historically received less attention than aboveground characteristics. The maize root system comprises primary, seminal, nodal and lateral roots differing in developmental origin, growth behaviour and physiological role. Key architectural traits-such as rooting depth, root growth angle and branching density-play a crucial role in root system development. These traits, along with anatomical features like cortical aerenchyma and root hair development, are governed by complex genetic networks involving regulatory genes, quantitative trait loci and hormone-mediated signalling pathways. Root growth and spatial distribution are further shaped by soil properties and agronomic practices, including irrigation and nutrient management. Recent advances in high-throughput phenotyping, three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction and artificial intelligence (AI) based image analysis technologies have enhanced quantitative assessment of root traits. This review consolidates recent progress in maize root research with emphasis on root system architecture (RSA), developmental regulation and their functional relevance to crop productivity. Uniquely, it integrates structural, genetic and phenotyping advances in maize root research into a unified framework, while explicitly linking RSA with its functional significance, an aspect often treated separately in earlier reviews. Optimising maize root systems is therefore essential for improving productivity, resource-use efficiency and agricultural sustainability under changing climatic conditions.

 

References

  1. 1. FAO. Production: crops and livestock products. In: FAOSTAT. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations; 2023.
  2. 2. Erenstein O, Jaleta M, Sonder K, Mottaleb K, Prasanna BM. Global maize production, consumption and trade: trends and R&D implications. Food Secur. 2022;14(5):1295–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-022-01288-7
  3. 3. Hochholdinger F, Yu P, Marcon C. Genetic control of root system development in maize. Trends Plant Sci. 2018;23(1):79–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2017.10.004
  4. 4. Lynch JP. Root phenotypes for improved nutrient capture: an underexploited opportunity for global agriculture. New Phytol. 2019;223(2):548–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15738
  5. 5. Schneider HM, Klein SP, Hanlon MT, Nord EA, Kaeppler S, Brown KM, et al. Genetic control of root architectural plasticity in maize. J Exp Bot. 2020;71(10):3185–97. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/eraa084
  6. 6. Sáenz Rodríguez MN, Cassab GI. Primary root and mesocotyl elongation in maize seedlings: two organs with antagonistic growth below the soil surface. Plants (Basel). 2021;10(7):1274. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10071274
  7. 7. Hochholdinger F. The maize root system: morphology, anatomy and genetics. In: Bennetzen JL, Hake SC, editors. Handbook of maize: its biology. New York: Springer; 2009. p. 145–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79418-1_8
  8. 8. Wang K, Zhang Z, Sha X, Yu P, Li Y, Zhang D, et al. Identification of a new QTL underlying seminal root number in a maize-teosinte population. Front Plant Sci. 2023;14:1132017. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1132017
  9. 9. Perkins AC, Lynch JP. Increased seminal root number associated with domestication improves nitrogen and phosphorus acquisition in maize seedlings. Ann Bot. 2021;128(4):453–68. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcab074
  10. 10. Yu P, Li C, Li M, He X, Wang D, Li H, et al. Seedling root system adaptation to water availability during maize domestication and global expansion. Nat Genet. 2024;56(6):1245–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-024-01761-3
  11. 11. Jiang Y, Whalen JK. Plasticity of maize (Zea mays L.) roots in water-deficient and nitrogen-limited soil. Crop Sci. 2025;65(3):e70084. https://doi.org/10.1002/csc2.70084
  12. 12. Hostetler AN, Erndwein L, Reneau JW, Stager A, Tanner HG, Cook D, et al. Multiple brace root phenotypes promote anchorage and limit root lodging in maize. Plant Cell Environ. 2022;45(5):1573–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.14289
  13. 13. Gao Y, Chen J, Wang G, Liu Z, Sun W, Zhang Y, et al. Different responses in root water uptake of summer maize to planting density and nitrogen fertilisation. Front Plant Sci. 2022;13:918043. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.918043
  14. 14. Rivas MÁ, Friero I, Alarcón MV, Salguero J. Auxin-cytokinin balance shapes maize root architecture by controlling primary root elongation and lateral root development. Front Plant Sci. 2022;13:836592. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.836592
  15. 15. Yin L, Lv Q, Wang P, Xie H. Changes in the degree of lateral root trait plasticity and trade-offs of maize under long-term no tillage. Front Plant Sci. 2024;15:1345189. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1345189
  16. 16. Postma JA, Dathe A, Lynch JP. The optimal lateral root branching density for maize depends on nitrogen and phosphorus availability. Plant Physiol. 2014;166(2):590–602. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.113.233916
  17. 17. Sciarresi C, Thies A, Topp C, Eudy D, Trifunovic S, Ruiz A, et al. Do newer maize hybrids grow roots faster and deeper? Crop Sci. 2024;64(3):1559–76. https://doi.org/10.1002/csc2.21208
  18. 18. Heinemann H, Seidel F, Hirte J, Welcker C, Chapuis R, Gelot C, et al. Variability in maize root biomass distribution under drought can contribute to climate change adaptation. Plant Soil. 2025:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-025-08176-x
  19. 19. Trachsel S, Kaeppler SM, Brown KM, Lynch JP. Maize root growth angles become steeper under low N conditions. Field Crops Res. 2013;140:18–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2012.09.010
  20. 20. Fusi R, Rosignoli S, Lou H, Sangiorgi G, Bovina R, Pattem JK, et al. Root angle is controlled by EGT1 in cereal crops employing an antigravitropic mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2022;119(31):e2201350119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2201350119
  21. 21. Ren W, Zhao L, Liang J, Wang L, Chen L, Li P, et al. Genome-wide dissection of changes in maize root system architecture during modern breeding. Nat Plants. 2022;8(12):1408–22. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-022-01274-z
  22. 22. Scharwies JD, Clarke T, Zheng Z, Dinneny A, Birkeland S, Veltman MA, et al. Moisture-responsive root-branching pathways identified in diverse maize breeding germplasm. Science. 2025;387(6734):666–73. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.ads5999
  23. 23. Fu X, Fu Q, Zhu X, Yang X, Chen H, Li S. Microdiversity sustains the distribution of rhizosphere-associated bacterial species from the root surface to the bulk soil region in maize crop fields. Front Microbiol. 2024;14:1323881. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1266218
  24. 24. Chimungu JG, Brown KM, Lynch JP. Reduced root cortical cell file number improves drought tolerance in maize. Plant Physiol. 2014;166(4):1943–55. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.249037
  25. 25. Vetterlein D, Phalempin M, Lippold E, Schlüter S, Schreiter S, Ahmed MA, et al. Root hairs matter at field scale for maize shoot growth and nutrient uptake, but root trait plasticity is primarily triggered by texture and drought. Plant Soil. 2022;478(1):119–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-022-05434-0
  26. 26. Duddek P, Ahmed MA, Javaux M, Vanderborght J, Lovric G, King A, et al. The effect of root hairs on root water uptake is determined by root-soil contact and root hair shrinkage. New Phytol. 2023;240(6):2484–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.19144
  27. 27. Wang Q, Liu M, Wang Z, Li J, Liu K, Huang D. The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis in plant abiotic stress. Front Microbiol. 2024;14:1323881. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1323881
  28. 28. Delaeter M, Magnin-Robert M, Randoux B, Lounès-Hadj Sahraoui A. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi as biostimulant and biocontrol agents: a review. Microorganisms. 2024;12(7):1281. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12071281
  29. 29. Begum N, Qin C, Ahanger MA, Raza S, Khan MI, Ashraf M, et al. Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in plant growth regulation: implications in abiotic stress tolerance. Front Plant Sci. 2019;10:1068. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.01068
  30. 30. Salvi S, Giuliani S, Ricciolini C, Carraro N, Maccaferri M, Presterl T, et al. Two major quantitative trait loci controlling the number of seminal roots in maize co-map with the root developmental genes rtcs and rum1. J Exp Bot. 2016;67(4):1149–59. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erw011
  31. 31. Xu C, Tai H, Saleem M, Ludwig Y, Majer C, Berendzen KW, et al. Cooperative action of the paralogous maize lateral organ boundaries (LOB) domain proteins RTCS and RTCL in shoot-borne root formation. New Phytol. 2015;207(4):1123–33. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.13420
  32. 32. Wang CX, Qi CY, Luo JH, Liu L, He Y, Chen LQ. Characterisation of LRL5 as a key regulator of root hair growth in maize. Plant J. 2019;98(1):71–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.14200
  33. 33. Li L, Hey S, Liu S, Liu Q, McNinch C, Hu HC, et al. Characterisation of maize roothairless6 which encodes a D-type cellulose synthase and controls the switch from bulge formation to tip growth. Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):34395. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep34395
  34. 34. Zhang X, Mi Y, Mao H, Liu S, Chen L, Qin F. Genetic variation in ZmTIP1 contributes to root hair elongation and drought tolerance in maize. Plant Biotechnol J. 2020;18(5):1271–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/pbi.13290
  35. 35. Cowling CL, Homayouni AL, Callwood JB, McReynolds MR, Khor J, Ke H, et al. ZmPILS6 is an auxin efflux carrier required for maize root morphogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2024;121(22):e2313216121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2313216121
  36. 36. Vanhees DJ, Schneider HM, Sidhu JS, Loades KW, Bengough AG, Bennett MJ, et al. Soil penetration by maize roots is negatively related to ethylene-induced thickening. Plant Cell Environ. 2022;45(3):789–804. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.14175
  37. 37. Kalra A, Goel S, Elias AA. Understanding role of roots in plant response to drought: way forward to climate-resilient crops. Plant Genome. 2024;17(1):e20395. https://doi.org/10.1002/tpg2.20395
  38. 38. Karnatam KS, Chhabra G, Saini DK, Singh R, Kaur G, Praba UP, et al. Genome-wide meta-analysis of QTLs associated with root traits and implications for maize breeding. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(7):6135. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24076135
  39. 39. Schneider HM, Lor VS, Hanlon MT, Perkins A, Kaeppler SM, Borkar AN, et al. Root angle in maize influences nitrogen capture and is regulated by calcineurin B-like protein (CBL)-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 15 (ZmCIPK15). Plant Cell Environ. 2022;45(3):837–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.14135
  40. 40. Nestler J, Liu S, Wen TJ, Paschold A, Marcon C, Tang HM, et al. Roothairless5, which functions in maize (Zea mays L.) root hair initiation and elongation, encodes a monocot-specific NADPH oxidase. Plant J. 2014;79(5):729–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.12578
  41. 41. Vanhees DJ, Loades KW, Bengough AG, Mooney SJ, Lynch JP. Root anatomical traits contribute to deeper rooting of maize under compacted field conditions. J Exp Bot. 2020;71(14):4243–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/eraa165
  42. 42. Lynch JP, Wojciechowski T. Opportunities and challenges in the subsoil: pathways to deeper rooted crops. J Exp Bot. 2015;66(8):2199–210. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/eru508
  43. 43. Maan C, ten Veldhuis MC, van de Wiel BJ. Dynamic root growth in response to depth-varying soil moisture availability: a rhizobox study. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci. 2023;27(12):2341–55. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-27-2341-2023
  44. 44. Xiong P, Zhang Z, Guo Z, Peng X. Macropores in a compacted soil impact maize growth at the seedling stage: effects of pore diameter and density. Soil Tillage Res. 2022;220:105370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105370
  45. 45. Dowd TG, Braun DM, Sharp RE. Maize lateral root developmental plasticity induced by mild water stress. I: Genotypic variation across a high-resolution series of water potentials. Plant Cell Environ. 2019;42(7):2259–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.13399
  46. 46. Eapen D, Martínez-Guadarrama J, Hernández-Bruno O, Flores L, Nieto-Sotelo J, Cassab GI. Synergy between root hydrotropic response and root biomass in maize (Zea mays L.) enhances drought avoidance. Plant Sci. 2017;265:87–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2017.09.016
  47. 47. Clark R, Chamberlain D, Diepenbrock C, Perugini L, Hisse IR, Cooper M, et al. Root system growth and function respond to soil temperature in maize (Zea mays L.). Plant Physiol. 2026;200(3):kiag120. https://doi.org/10.1093/plphys/kiag120
  48. 48. Zhou Y, Sommer ML, Meyer A, Wang D, Klaus A, Stöcker T, et al. Cold mediates maize root hair developmental plasticity via epidermis-specific transcriptomic responses. Plant Physiol. 2024;196(3):2105–20. https://doi.org/10.1093/plphys/kiae449
  49. 49. Walne CH, Reddy KR. Temperature effects on the shoot and root growth, development and biomass accumulation of corn (Zea mays L.). Agriculture. 2022;12(4):443. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12040443
  50. 50. Xiong P, Jiang F, Wang Y, Zhang Z. Artificial macropores improve maize performance at the seedling stage under poor aeration. Front Plant Sci. 2024;15:1468242. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2024.1468242
  51. 51. Yu Z, Wang C, Zou H, Wang H, Li H, Sun H, et al. The effects of aerated irrigation on soil respiration and the yield of the maize root zone. Sustainability. 2022;14(8):4378. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084378
  52. 52. Ruan R, Zhang P, Lambers H, Xie W, Zhang Z, Xie S, et al. Biochar application improves maize yield on the Loess Plateau of China by changing soil pore structure and enhancing root growth. Sci Total Environ. 2024;956:177379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177379
  53. 53. Wendel AS, Bauke SL, Amelung W, Knief C. Root-rhizosphere-soil interactions in biopores. Plant Soil. 2022;475(1):253–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-022-05406-4
  54. 54. Pagani A, Mallarino AP. On-farm evaluation of corn and soybean grain yield and soil pH responses to liming. Agron J. 2015;107(1):71–82. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj14.0314
  55. 55. Ofoe R, Thomas RH, Asiedu SK, Wang-Pruski G, Fofana B, Abbey L. Aluminum in plant: benefits, toxicity and tolerance mechanisms. Front Plant Sci. 2023;13:1085998. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1085998
  56. 56. ul Shahid Z, Ali M, Shahzad K, Danish S, Alharbi SA, Ansari MJ. Enhancing maize productivity by mitigating alkaline soil challenges through acidified biochar and wastewater irrigation. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):20800. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-48163-9
  57. 57. Islam M, Islam M, Hasan M, Hafeez AS, Chowdhury M, Pramanik M, et al. Salinity stress in maize: consequences, tolerance mechanisms and management strategies. OBM Genet. 2024;8(2). https://doi.org/10.21926/obm.genet.2402232
  58. 58. Shelden MC, Munns R. Crop root system plasticity for improved yields in saline soils. Front Plant Sci. 2023;14:1120583. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1120583
  59. 59. Abbas A, Naveed M, Shehzad Khan K, Ashraf M, Siddiqui MH, Abbas N, et al. The efficacy of organic amendments on maize productivity, soil properties and active fractions of soil carbon in organic-matter deficient soil. Span J Soil Sci. 2024;14:12814. https://doi.org/10.3389/sjss.2024.12814
  60. 60. Abrol V, Sharma P, Chary GR, Srinivasarao C, Maruthi Sankar GR, Singh B, et al. Integrated organic and mineral fertiliser strategies for achieving sustainable maize yield and soil quality in dry sub-humid inceptisols. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):27227. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-74727-4
  61. 61. Lynch JP, Mooney SJ, Strock CF, Schneider HM. Future roots for future soils. Plant Cell Environ. 2022;45(3):620–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.14213
  62. 62. Adekiya AO, Ande OT, Dahunsi SO, Ogunwole J. Sole and combined application of biodigestate, N, P and K fertilisers: impacts on soil chemical properties and maize performance. Sci World J. 2024;2024(1):6685906. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/6685906
  63. 63. Teressa D, Kibret K, Dechasa N, Wogi L. Soil properties and nutrient uptake of maize (Zea mays) as influenced by mixed manure and blended inorganic fertiliser in Haramaya district, eastern Ethiopia. Heliyon. 2024;10(16):e35784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e35784
  64. 64. Garello FJ, Ploschuk EL, Melani EM, Taboada MA. Soil water availability and water absorption by maize in sodic soils with high water table. Field Crops Res. 2023;295:108877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2023.108877
  65. 65. Amer MM, Elbagory M, El-Nahrawy S, Omara AE. Impact of gypsum and bio-priming of maize grains on soil properties, physiological attributes and yield under saline-sodic soil conditions. Agronomy. 2022;12(10):2550. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12102550
  66. 66. Ashine ET, Bedane MT, Kedir Chota M, Admassu R. Effect of deficit irrigation on maize (Zea mays L.) crop under conventional, fixed and alternate furrow irrigation for effective irrigation water management. Air Soil Water Res. 2024;17:11786221241254289. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786221241254289
  67. 67. Irmak S. Maize response to different subsurface drip irrigation management strategies: yield, production functions, basal and crop evapotranspiration. Agric Water Manag. 2024;300:108927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2024.108927
  68. 68. Salvador R, Playán E, Guillén M, Paniagua MP, Zapata N. Sprinkler irrigation machines: effect of a growing maize canopy on water partitioning, drop characteristics and energy dissipation. Irrig Sci. 2024;42(2):285–304. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00271-023-00894-3
  69. 69. Xia Z, Gong Y, Lyu X, Lin J, Yang Y, Lu H. Split nitrogen application increases maize root growth, yield and nitrogen use efficiency under soil warming conditions. Crop J. 2025;13(2):565–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cj.2025.01.010
  70. 70. Alam MK, Bell RW, Salahin N, Pathan S, Mondol AT, Alam MJ, et al. Banding of fertiliser improves phosphorus acquisition and yield of zero tillage maize by concentrating phosphorus in surface soil. Sustainability. 2018;10(9):3234. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10093234
  71. 71. Guo S, Liu Z, Sheng H, Olukayode T, Zhou Z, Liu Y, et al. Dynamic transcriptome analysis unravels key regulatory genes of maize root growth and development in response to potassium deficiency. Planta. 2023;258(5):99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-023-04260-7
  72. 72. Souza AC, Olivares FL, Peres LE, Piccolo A, Canellas LP. Plant hormone crosstalk mediated by humic acids. Chem Biol Technol Agric. 2022;9(1):29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-022-00295-2
  73. 73. Upadhyay SK, Srivastava AK, Rajput VD, Chauhan PK, Bhojiya AA, Jain D, et al. Root exudates: mechanistic insight of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria for sustainable crop production. Front Microbiol. 2022;13:916488. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.916488
  74. 74. Agostini RB, Ariel F, Rius SP, Vargas WA, Campos-Bermudez VA. Trichoderma root colonisation in maize triggers epigenetic changes in genes related to the jasmonic and salicylic acid pathways that prime defences against Colletotrichum graminicola leaf infection. J Exp Bot. 2023;74(6):2016–28. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erac518
  75. 75. Ji B, Zhao Y, Mu X, Liu K, Li C. Effects of tillage on soil physical properties and root growth of maize in loam and clay in central China. Plant Soil Environ. 2013;59(7):295–302. https://doi.org/10.17221/57/2013-PSE
  76. 76. Zhao H, Qin J, Gao T, Zhang M, Sun H, Zhu S, et al. Immediate and long-term effects of tillage practices with crop residue on soil water and organic carbon storage changes under a wheat-maize cropping system. Soil Tillage Res. 2022;218:105309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2021.105309
  77. 77. Yang L, Muhammad I, Chi YX, Wang D, Zhou XB. Straw return and nitrogen fertilisation to maize regulate soil properties, microbial community and enzyme activities under a dual cropping system. Front Microbiol. 2022;13:823963. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.823963
  78. 78. Wang J, Chen Z, Liang Z, Yin Y, Huang S, Meng Q, et al. Interactive effects of planting density and row spacing on maize root distribution and yield. Agronomy. 2025;15(11):2552. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15112552
  79. 79. Benitez MS, Osborne SL, Lehman RM. Previous crop and rotation history effects on maize seedling health and associated rhizosphere microbiome. Sci Rep. 2017;7(1):15709. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-15955-9
  80. 80. Sun Y, Yang X, Nan T, Du T, Kang S, Siddique KHM, et al. Distinct soil nutrient availability drives variation in the microbial community and functions in wheat and maize rhizosphere under diversified crop rotations. Plant Soil. 2025;517(2):1889–912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-025-07956-9
  81. 81. Jing B, Shi W, Chen T, Zhai Z. Introducing soybean into maize fields improves responses of maize canopy and root architecture to light and water utilisation under different irrigation levels. Plant Soil. 2025;514(2):1811–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-025-07489-1
  82. 82. Zhang Y, Zhang R, Zhao S, Li S, Meng L. Impact of nitrogen use efficiency towards ammonia-oxidizing microbes in rhizosphere soil of intercropped soybean and maize. J Soil Sci Plant Nutr. 2024;24(3):6113–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42729-024-01964-x
  83. 83. dos Santos RM, Diaz PA, Lobo LL, Rigobelo EC. Use of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in maize and sugarcane: characteristics and applications. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2020;4:136. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00136
  84. 84. Qiao S, Fang Y, Wu A, Xu B, Zhang S, Deng X, et al. Dissecting root trait variability in maize genotypes using the semi-hydroponic phenotyping platform. Plant Soil. 2019;439(1):75–90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-018-3803-6
  85. 85. Atkinson JA, Pound MP, Bennett MJ, Wells DM. Uncovering the hidden half of plants using new advances in root phenotyping. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2019;55:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2018.06.002
  86. 86. Jiang N, Floro E, Bray AL, Laws B, Duncan KE, Topp CN. Three-dimensional time-lapse analysis reveals multiscale relationships in maize root systems with contrasting architectures. Plant Cell. 2019;31(8):1708–22. https://doi.org/10.1105/tpc.19.00015
  87. 87. Liu Z, Gao K, Shan S, Gu R, Wang Z, Craft EJ, et al. Comparative analysis of root traits and the associated QTLs for maize seedlings grown in paper roll, hydroponics and vermiculite culture system. Front Plant Sci. 2017;8:436. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2017.00436
  88. 88. Schneider HM, Klein SP, Hanlon MT, Kaeppler S, Brown KM, Lynch JP. Genetic control of root anatomical plasticity in maize. Plant Genome. 2020;13:e20003. https://doi.org/10.1002/tpg2.20003
  89. 89. Colombi T, Braun S, Keller T, Walter A. Artificial macropores attract crop roots and enhance plant productivity on compacted soils. Sci Total Environ. 2017;574:1283–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.194
  90. 90. Downie H, Holden N, Otten W, Spiers AJ, Valentine TA, Dupuy LX. Transparent soil for imaging the rhizosphere. PLoS One. 2012;7(9):e44276. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044276
  91. 91. Gao W, Blaser SR, Schlüter S, Shen J, Vetterlein D. Effect of localised phosphorus application on root growth and soil nutrient dynamics in situ–comparison of maize (Zea mays) and faba bean (Vicia faba) at the seedling stage. Plant Soil. 2019;441(1):469–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-019-04138-2
  92. 92. Clark RT, Famoso AN, Zhao K, Shaff JE, Craft EJ, Bustamante CD, et al. High-throughput two-dimensional root system phenotyping platform facilitates genetic analysis of root growth and development. Plant Cell Environ. 2013;36(2):454–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2012.02587.x
  93. 93. Poorter H, Fiorani F, Pieruschka R, Wojciechowski T, van der Putten WH, Kleyer M, et al. Pampered inside, pestered outside? Differences and similarities between plants growing in controlled conditions and in the field. New Phytol. 2016;212(4):838–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14243
  94. 94. Trachsel S, Kaeppler SM, Brown KM, Lynch JP. Shovelomics: high throughput phenotyping of maize (Zea mays L.) root architecture in the field. Plant Soil. 2011;341(1):75–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-010-0623-8
  95. 95. Liu S, Barrow CS, Hanlon M, Lynch JP, Bucksch A. DIRT/3D: 3D root phenotyping for field-grown maize (Zea mays). Plant Physiol. 2021;187(2):739–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/plphys/kiab311
  96. 96. Wu Q, Wu J, Zheng B, Guo Y. Optimising soil-coring strategies to quantify root-length-density distribution in field-grown maize: virtual coring trials using 3-D root architecture models. Ann Bot. 2018;121(5):809–19. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcx117
  97. 97. Seethepalli A, Dhakal K, Griffiths M, Guo H, Freschet GT, York LM. RhizoVision Explorer: open-source software for root image analysis and measurement standardisation. AoB Plants. 2021;13(6):plab056. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plab056
  98. 98. Johnson MG, Tingey DT, Phillips DL, Storm MJ. Advancing fine root research with minirhizotrons. Environ Exp Bot. 2001;45(3):263–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0098-8472(01)00077-6
  99. 99. York LM, Lynch JP. Intensive field phenotyping of maize (Zea mays L.) root crowns identifies phenes and phene integration associated with plant growth and nitrogen acquisition. J Exp Bot. 2015;66(18):5493–505. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erv241
  100. 100. Liedgens M, Richner W. Minirhizotron observations of the spatial distribution of the maize root system. Agron J. 2001;93(5):1097–1104. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2001.9351097x
  101. 101. Luo H, Dewitte K, Landschoot S, Sigurnjak I, Robles-Aguilar AA, Michels E, et al. Benefits of biobased fertilisers as substitutes for synthetic nitrogen fertilisers: Field assessment combining minirhizotron and UAV-based spectrum sensing technologies. Front Environ Sci. 2022;10:988932. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.988932
  102. 102. Burton AL, Brown KM, Lynch JP. Phenotypic diversity of root anatomical and architectural traits in Zea species. Crop Sci. 2013;53(3):1042–55. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2012.07.0440
  103. 103. Tracy SR, Roberts JA, Black CR, McNeill A, Davidson R, Mooney SJ. The X-factor: visualising undisturbed root architecture in soils using X-ray computed tomography. J Exp Bot. 2010;61(2):311–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erp386
  104. 104. Scotson CP, Van Veelen A, Williams KA, Koebernick N, McKay Fletcher D, Roose T. Developing a system for in vivo imaging of maize roots containing iodinated contrast media in soil using synchrotron XCT and XRF. Plant Soil. 2021;460(1):647–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-020-04784-x
  105. 105. Soltaninejad M, Sturrock CJ, Griffiths M, Pridmore TP, Pound MP. Three-dimensional root CT segmentation using multi-resolution encoder–decoder networks. IEEE Trans Image Process. 2020;29:6667–79. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIP.2020.2992893
  106. 106. Metzner R, Eggert A, van Dusschoten D, Pflugfelder D, Gerth S, Schurr U, et al. Direct comparison of MRI and X-ray CT technologies for 3D imaging of root systems in soil: potential and challenges for root trait quantification. Plant Methods. 2015;11:17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13007-015-0060-z
  107. 107. Van As H, Van Duynhoven J. MRI of plants and foods. J Magn Reson. 2013;229:25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmr.2012.12.019
  108. 108. Mooney SJ, Pridmore TP, Helliwell J, Bennett MJ. Developing X-ray computed tomography to non-invasively image 3-D root systems architecture in soil. Plant Soil. 2012;352(1):1–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-011-1039-9
  109. 109. Galindo-Castañeda T, Brown KM, Lynch JP. Reduced root cortical burden improves growth and grain yield under low phosphorus availability in maize. Plant Cell Environ. 2018;41(7):1579–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.13197
  110. 110. Strock CF, Schneider HM, Galindo-Castañeda T, Hall BT, Van Gansbeke B, Mather DE, et al. Laser ablation tomography for visualisation of root colonisation by edaphic organisms. J Exp Bot. 2019;70(19):5327–42. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erz271
  111. 111. Hu L, Robert CA, Cadot S, Zhang XI, Ye M, Li B, et al. Root exudate metabolites drive plant–soil feedbacks on growth and defence by shaping the rhizosphere microbiota. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):2738. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-05122-7
  112. 112. Cotton TA, Pétriacq P, Cameron DD, Meselmani MA, Schwarzenbacher R, Rolfe SA, et al. Metabolic regulation of the maize rhizobiome by benzoxazinoids. ISME J. 2019;13(7):1647–58. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-019-0375-2
  113. 113. Razavi BS, Zarebanadkouki M, Blagodatskaya E, Kuzyakov Y. Rhizosphere shape of lentil and maize: spatial distribution of enzyme activities. Soil Biol Biochem. 2016;96:229–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2016.02.020
  114. 114. Ding L, Milhiet T, Couvreur V, Nelissen H, Meziane A, Parent B, et al. Modification of the expression of the aquaporin ZmPIP2;5 affects water relations and plant growth. Plant Physiol. 2020;182(4):2154–65. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.19.01183
  115. 115. Jorda H, Ahmed MA, Javaux M, Carminati A, Duddek P, Vetterlein D, et al. Field scale plant water relation of maize (Zea mays) under drought–impact of root hairs and soil texture. Plant Soil. 2022;478(1):59–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-022-05685-x
  116. 116. Postma JA, Kuppe C, Owen MR, Mellor N, Griffiths M, Bennett MJ, et al. OpenSimRoot: widening the scope and application of root architectural models. New Phytol. 2017;215(3):1274–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.14641
  117. 117. Oburger E, Jones DL. Sampling root exudates–mission impossible? Rhizosphere. 2018;6:116–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2018.06.004
  118. 118. Liu S, Bonelli WP, Pietrzyk P, Bucksch A. Comparison of open-source three-dimensional reconstruction pipelines for maize-root phenotyping. Plant Phenom J. 2023;6(1):e20068. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppj2.20068
  119. 119. Yasrab R, Atkinson JA, Wells DM, French AP, Pridmore TP, Pound MP. RootNav 2.0: Deep learning for automatic navigation of complex plant root architectures. Gigascience. 2019;8(11):giz123. https://doi.org/10.1093/gigascience/giz123
  120. 120. Shete S, Srinivasan S, Gonsalves TA. TasselGAN: An application of the generative adversarial model for creating field-based maize tassel data. Plant Phenomics. 2020;2020:8309605. https://doi.org/10.34133/2020/8309605
  121. 121. Vadez V. Root hydraulics: the forgotten side of roots in drought adaptation. Field Crops Res. 2014;165:15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2014.03.017
  122. 122. Pound MP, Atkinson JA, Townsend AJ, Wilson MH, Griffiths M, Jackson AS, et al. Deep machine learning provides state-of-the-art performance in image-based plant phenotyping. Gigascience. 2017;6(10):gix083. https://doi.org/10.1093/gigascience/gix083
  123. 123. Lobet G, Draye X, Périlleux C. An online database for plant image analysis software tools. Plant Methods. 2013;9(1):38. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4811-9-38
  124. 124. Hein KM, Liu AE, Mullen JL, Shao MR, Topp CN, McKay JK. Phenome-to-genome insights for evaluating root system architecture in field studies of maize. Plant Genome. 2025;18(3):e70100. https://doi.org/10.1002/tpg2.70100
  125. 125. Lärm L, Bauer FM, Hermes N, van der Kruk J, Vereecken H, Vanderborght J, et al. Multi-year belowground data of minirhizotron facilities in Selhausen. Sci Data. 2023;10(1):672. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-023-02570-9
  126. 126. Bucksch A, Burridge J, York LM, Das A, Nord E, Weitz JS, et al. Image-based high-throughput field phenotyping of crop roots. Plant Physiol. 2014;166(2):470–86. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.243519
  127. 127. Müllers Y, Postma JA, Poorter H, Kochs J, Pflugfelder D, Schurr U, et al. Shallow roots of different crops have greater water uptake rates per unit length than deep roots in well-watered soil. Plant Soil. 2022;481(1):475–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-022-05650-8
  128. 128. Dowd TG, Li M, Bagnall GC, Johnston A, Topp CN. Root system architecture and environmental flux analysis in mature crops using 3D root mesocosms. Front Plant Sci. 2022;13:1041404. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1041404
  129. 129. Schneider HM, Strock CF, Hanlon MT, Vanhees DJ, Perkins AC, Ajmera IB, et al. Multiseriate cortical sclerenchyma enhances root penetration in compacted soils. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021;118(6):e2012087118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2012087118
  130. 130. Peters B, Blume-Werry G, Gillert A, Schwieger S, von Lukas UF, Kreyling J. As good as human experts in detecting plant roots in minirhizotron images but efficient and reproducible: The convolutional neural network “RootDetector”. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1):1399. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-28400-x
  131. 131. York LM, Galindo-Castañeda T, Schussler JR, Lynch JP. Evolution of US maize (Zea mays L.) root architectural and anatomical phenes over the past 100 years corresponds to increased tolerance of nitrogen stress. J Exp Bot. 2015;66(8):2347–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erv074
  132. 132. Gao Y, Lynch JP. Reduced crown root number improves water acquisition under water deficit stress in maize (Zea mays L.). J Exp Bot. 2016;67(15):4545–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erw243
  133. 133. Gao KU, Chen F, Yuan L, Zhang F, Mi G. A comprehensive analysis of root morphological changes and nitrogen allocation in maize in response to low nitrogen stress. Plant Cell Environ. 2015;38(4):740–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/pce.12439
  134. 134. Chimungu JG, Brown KM, Lynch JP. Large root cortical cell size improves drought tolerance in maize. Plant Physiol. 2014;166(4):2166–78. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.114.250449
  135. 135. Wang L, Li X, Mang M, Ludewig U, Shen J. Heterogeneous nutrient supply promotes maize growth and phosphorus acquisition: additive and compensatory effects of lateral roots and root hairs. Ann Bot. 2021;128(4):431–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcab097
  136. 136. Jia X, Liu P, Lynch JP. Greater lateral root branching density in maize improves phosphorus acquisition from low phosphorus soil. J Exp Bot. 2018;69(20):4961–70. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ery252
  137. 137. Ordóñez RA, Archontoulis SV, Martinez-Feria R, Hatfield JL, Wright EE, Castellano MJ. Root to shoot and carbon to nitrogen ratios of maize and soybean crops in the US Midwest. Eur J Agron. 2020;120:126130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2020.126130
  138. 138. Jing J, Rui Y, Zhang F, Rengel Z, Shen J. Localised application of phosphorus and ammonium improves growth of maize seedlings by stimulating root proliferation and rhizosphere acidification. Field Crops Res. 2010;119(2–3):355–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2010.08.005
  139. 139. Mi G, Chen F, Yuan L, Zhang F. Ideotype root system architecture for maize to achieve high yield and resource use efficiency in intensive cropping systems. Adv Agron. 2016;139:73–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2016.05.002

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.