Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
Plant Science Today (PST)

Research Articles

Vol. 13 No. sp5 (2026): Recent Advances in Agriculture

Seed priming with g-C₃N₄/SiO₂ nanocomposites enhances germination, seedling vigour and salt stress tolerance in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.14955
Submitted
11 April 2026
Published
30-08-2026

Abstract

Nanotechnology holds the potential to enhance agricultural production through various engineered nanomaterials. The use of nanoparticles in agriculture is prevalent for augmenting crop growth under abiotic stress conditions. However, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles are highly toxic due to their acute and chronic toxicity and their persistence in the environment. The metal-free alternatives such as g-C₃N₄ (graphitic carbon nitride) and SiO₂ (silicon dioxide) have been explored in various research fields, including agriculture. The g-C₃N₄ and SiO₂ were synthesised using thermal polymerisation and green synthesis methods, respectively. The comprehensive characterisation of the nanocomposites was carried out using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), field-emission scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (FESEM-EDS) and dynamic light scattering (DLS) analyses. Furthermore, we have focused on the nanopriming technique by using g-C₃N₄/SiO₂ to mitigate salt stress in Oryza sativa L. seeds. The treatments include an absolute control (no treatment), positive control (NaCl), 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 ppm g-C₃N₄/SiO2 nanocomposites. All treatments except the absolute control were maintained in saline conditions at 80 mM using NaCl. The germination parameters, such as germination percentage, mean germination time, germination rate index, coefficient of velocity of germination, vigour index, dry weight, root and shoot length, were influenced in treated seeds. Among the treatments, 20 ppm g-C₃N₄/SiO₂ nanocomposite seed priming resulted in the highest germination percentage (93.3 %), germination rate index (2.6), coefficient of velocity of germination (18.21), mean seedling length (34.56 cm), vigour index (3224), root length (22.55 cm), shoot length (12 cm), while reducing mean germination time (5.50 days). Overall, the metal-free nanocomposites were beneficial in mitigating salt stress in O. sativa seeds and their application may stimulate the plant defence mechanism.

References

  1. 1. Atanda SA, Shaibu RO, Agunbiade FO. Nanoparticles in agriculture: balancing food security and environmental sustainability. Discover Agriculture. 2025;3:26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-025-00159-x
  2. 2. John DA, Babu GR. Lessons from the aftermaths of Green Revolution on food system and health. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2021;5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.644559
  3. 3. Robinson GM. Global sustainable agriculture and land management systems. Geography and Sustainability. 2024;5:637–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geosus.2024.09.001
  4. 4. Sackey OK, Feng N, Mohammed YZ, Dzou CF, Zheng D, Zhao L, et al. A comprehensive review on rice responses and tolerance to salt stress. Front Plant Sci. 2025;16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2025.1561280
  5. 5. Muhammad M, Waheed A, Wahab A, Majeed M, Nazim M, Liu YH, et al. Soil salinity and drought tolerance: an evaluation of plant growth, productivity, microbial diversity and amelioration strategies. Plant Stress. 2024;11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stress.2023.100319
  6. 6. Wang D, Saleh NB, Byro A, Zepp R, Sahle-Demessie E, Luxton TP, et al. Nano-enabled pesticides for sustainable agriculture and global food security. Nat Nanotechnol. 2022;17:347–60. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41565-022-01082-8
  7. 7. Gangwar J, Kadanthottu Sebastian J, Puthukulangara Jaison J, Kurian JT. Nano-technological interventions in crop production-a review. Physiol Mol Biol Plants. 2023;29:93–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-022-01274-5
  8. 8. Baig N, Kammakakam I, Falath W, Kammakakam I. Nanomaterials: a review of synthesis methods, properties, recent progress and challenges. Mater Adv. 2021;2:1821–71. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0MA00807A
  9. 9. Khan MN, Fu C, Li J, Tao Y, Li Y, Hu J, et al. Seed nanopriming: how do nanomaterials improve seed tolerance to salinity and drought? Chemosphere. 2023;310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136911
  10. 10. Li Z, Zhu L, Zhao F, Li J, Zhang X, Kong X, et al. Plant salinity stress response and nano enabled plant salt tolerance. Front Plant Sci. 2022;13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.843994
  11. 11. Abbasi Khalaki M, Moameri M, Asgari Lajayer B, Astatkie T. Influence of nano-priming on seed germination and plant growth of forage and medicinal plants. Plant Growth Regul. 2021;93:13–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10725-020-00670-9
  12. 12. Venzhik Y, Naraikina N, Deryabin A, Zhukova K, Snigur M, Kartashov A, et al. Nanopriming with Au-NPs enhances tomato metabolism and cold tolerance. Plants. 2025;15:83. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants15010083
  13. 13. Ashokkumar K, Senthilkumar E, Balaji A, Ramachandran Y, Pandiyarajan P, Annanithi A. Copper oxide nanoparticle seed priming and its impact on germination, seedling growth and vigour index of Vigna mungo. Proc Natl Acad Sci India Sect B Biol Sci. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40011-025-01751-3
  14. 14. Acharya P, Jayaprakasha GK, Crosby KM, Jifon JL, Patil BS. Nanoparticle-mediated seed priming improves germination, growth, yield and quality of watermelons (Citrullus lanatus) at multi-locations in Texas. Sci Rep. 2020;10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61696-7
  15. 15. Ahmad S, Ahmad MA, Ahmad N, Munir I, Ercisli S, Hasan MM. Phytogenic hematite nanoparticles for seed nano-priming enhance germination, growth, yield and iron enrichment in rice. Bionanoscience. 2026;16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-025-02352-0
  16. 16. Khan MN, Li Y, Fu C, Hu J, Chen L, Yan J, et al. CeO₂ nanoparticles seed priming increases salicylic acid level and ROS scavenging ability to improve rapeseed salt tolerance. Global Challenges. 2022;6. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.202200025
  17. 17. Kumar SM, Yadav S, Choudhary R, Anumantharaj A, Yadav A, Hussain Z, et al. Nanopriming with zinc oxide nanoparticle boosts seed vigour, photosynthesis, osmolytes accumulation and antioxidant activity in tomato. Sci Rep. 2025;15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-09269-4
  18. 18. Anbalagan A, Yadav S, Choudhary R, Sushma MK, Yadav A, Singh D, et al. Nanopriming with TiO₂ enhances germination by affecting chlorophyll content, osmolytes and antioxidant defense system in lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.). Russian Journal of Plant Physiology. 2025;72. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443724608310
  19. 19. Gautam A, Rusli LS, Yaacob JS, Kumar V, Guleria P. Nanopriming with magnesium oxide nanoparticles enhanced antioxidant potential and nutritional richness of radish leaves grown in field. Clean Technol Environ Policy. 2025;27:5529–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-023-02697-8
  20. 20. García-Locascio E, Valenzuela EI, Cervantes-Avilés P. Impact of seed priming with selenium nanoparticles on germination and seedlings growth of tomato. Sci Rep. 2024;14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-57049-3
  21. 21. Hasanaklou NT, Mohagheghi V, Hasanaklou HT, Ma'mani L, Malekmohammadi M, Moradi F, et al. Seed nano-priming using silica nanoparticles: effects in seed germination and physiological properties of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture. 2023;10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40538-023-00445-0
  22. 22. Zhang H, Gao W, Wang N, Wang X, Ma X, Chen J, et al. Nanopriming with carbon dots enhances cotton seed germination and salt tolerance by activating salt-induced ROS signaling to modulate Na+ homeostasis. Plant Nano Biology. 2026;15:100225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plana.2025.100225
  23. 23. Khalid F, Asif K, Rasheed Y, Ashraf H, Maqsood MF, Rana S, et al. Nano priming for boosting growth and resilience in crops under abiotic stresses. Biocatal Agric Biotechnol. 2023;53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2023.102892
  24. 24. Kumar A, Choudhary A, Kaur H, Mehta S, Husen A. Smart nanomaterial and nanocomposite with advanced agrochemical activities. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2021;16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-021-03612-0
  25. 25. Solano R, Patiño-Ruiz D, Tejeda-Benitez L, Herrera A. Metal- and metal/oxide-based engineered nanoparticles and nanostructures: a review on the applications, nanotoxicological effects and risk control strategies. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12996-6
  26. 26. Jayasoorya R, Kumar P. Utilization of biodegradable carrier-based nano herbicide formulations for sustainable weed management in agriculture. Front Agron. 2024;6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fagro.2024.1497041
  27. 27. Hayat A, Al-Sehemi AG, El-Nasser KS, Taha TA, Al-Ghamdi AA, Jawad Ali Shah Syed, et al. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-based semiconductor as a beneficial candidate in photocatalysis diversity. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2022;47:5142–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.11.133
  28. 28. Jayasoorya R, Pradeesh Kumar T, Mohana Roopan S. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) nanomaterials for foliar applications and soil-water remediation in agriculture: a review. Environ Sci Nano. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5EN00446B
  29. 29. Aquino de Carvalho N, Gilbertson LM. Comparative life cycle assessment of graphitic carbon nitride synthesis routes. J Ind Ecol. 2023;27:1008–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13390
  30. 30. Siddiqi KS, Husen A, Zahra N, Moheman A. Harnessing silicon nanoparticles and various forms of silicon for enhanced plant growth performance under salinity stress: application and mechanism. Discover Nano. 2025;20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11671-025-04270-2
  31. 31. Shahzadi S, Fatima S, Ul Ain Q, Shafiq Z, Janjua MRSA. A review on green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (SNPs) using plant extracts: a multifaceted approach in photocatalysis, environmental remediation and biomedicine. RSC Adv. 2025;15:3858–903. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA07519F
  32. 32. Cardoso B, Nobrega G, Afonso IS, Ribeiro JE, Lima RA. Sustainable green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using plants and microorganisms: a review of biosynthesis methods, mechanisms, toxicity and applications. J Environ Chem Eng. 2025;13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.116921
  33. 33. Rahimzadeh CY, Barzinjy AA, Mohammed AS, Hamad SM. Green synthesis of SiO2 nanoparticles from Rhus coriaria L. extract: comparison with chemically synthesized SiO2 nanoparticles. PLoS One. 2022;17. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0268184
  34. 34. Sharma P, Kherb J, Prakash J, Kaushal R. A novel and facile green synthesis of SiO2 nanoparticles for removal of toxic water pollutants. Appl Nanosci. 2023;13:735–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-021-01898-1
  35. 35. Dey S, Ghosh N, Nath S, Gopal G, Paul S, Mukherjee A, et al. Application of multi-metallic nanoparticles in agriculture: the more, the better? Biocatal Agric Biotechnol. 2024;58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2024.103238
  36. 36. Li Y, Liu Y, Yang D, Jin Q, Wu C, Cui J. Multifunctional molybdenum disulfide-copper nanocomposite that enhances the antibacterial activity, promotes rice growth and induces rice resistance. J Hazard Mater. 2020;394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122551
  37. 37. Ma T, Lu Y, Gao S, Liu H, Zhang J, Ma L, et al. Photocatalytic degradation of dyes and antibiotics based on Z-scheme heterojunction SiO2/g-C3N4. Sep Purif Technol. 2025;371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2025.133337
  38. 38. Zhang Y, Pan Q, Chai G, Liang M, Dong G, Zhang Q, et al. Synthesis and luminescence mechanism of multicolor-emitting g-C3N4 nanopowders by low temperature thermal condensation of melamine. Sci Rep. 2013;3. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep01943
  39. 39. Sundeep D, Vijaya Kumar T, Rao PSS, Ravikumar RVSSN, Gopala Krishna A. Green synthesis and characterization of Ag nanoparticles from Mangifera indica leaves for dental restoration and antibacterial applications. Prog Biomater. 2017;6:57–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40204-017-0067-9
  40. 40. Amirjani MR. Effect of NaCl stress on rice physiological properties. Arch Phytopathol Plant Prot. 2012;45:228–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/03235408.2011.559034
  41. 41. Akbar MU, Aqeel M, Alomran MM, Haider I, Al-Zoubi OM, Noman A. Appraisal of germination behavior and activity in newly developed rice lines. Turk J Agric For. 2025;49:296–304. https://doi.org/10.55730/1300-011X.3266
  42. 42. Kulkarni MG, Street RA, Van Staden J. Germination and seedling growth requirements for propagation of Dioscorea dregeana (Kunth) Dur. and Schinz, a tuberous medicinal plant. S Afr J Bot. 2007;73:131–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2006.09.002
  43. 43. Moghadam PA, Alaei Y. Evaluation of important germination traits of soybean genotypes through factor analysis in osmotic drought stress conditions. Bull Environ Pharmacol Life Sci. 2014;3.
  44. 44. Kader MA. A comparison of seed germination calculation formulae and the associated interpretation of resulting data. 2005;138. https://doi.org/10.5962/p.361564
  45. 45. Abdul-Baki AA, Anderson JD. Vigor determination in soybean seed by multiple criteria. Crop Sci. 1973;13. https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1973.0011183X001300060013x
  46. 46. Ranganathan T, Selwynraj Arunodayaraj I. Disintegration of lignocellulosic material through visible light SiO2/g-C3N4 photocatalyst for biogas generation. J Indian Chem Soc. 2024;101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jics.2024.101371
  47. 47. Prakash K, Kumar PS, Latha P, Saravanakumar K, Karuthapandian S. Design and fabrication of a novel metal-free SiO2/g-C3N4 nanocomposite: a robust photocatalyst for the degradation of organic contaminants. J Inorg Organomet Polym Mater. 2018;28:268–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10904-017-0715-5
  48. 48. Wang X, Zhao Y, Tan H, Sun H, Shang Q, Zhao X, et al. Foamer-derived bulk nitrogen defects and oxygen-doped porous carbon nitride with greatly extended visible-light response and efficient photocatalytic activity. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2021;13:23866–76. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c06235
  49. 49. Feng J, Qin W, Shangguan L, Zhang H, Sun J, Sun S, et al. Solvated electron-driven stepwise ORR on Na-metalated N-rich carbon nitride for efficient photocatalytic H2O2 production. Adv Sci. 2026;13. https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.202516471
  50. 50. Zhao M, Salih KAM, Wei Y, Guibal E, Ning S, Goda AES, et al. Novel method for synthesizing high S-bearing hybrid sorbent for efficient silver binding: characterization, testing and application to metal recovery from X-ray films. Chem Eng J. 2023;477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.147010
  51. 51. Shoran S, Sharma A, Chaudhary S. Visible light enhanced photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants with SiO2/g-C3N4 nanocomposite for environmental applications. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2023;30:98732–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24837-1
  52. 52. Alaghmandfard A, Ghandi K. A comprehensive review of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-metal oxide-based nanocomposites: potential for photocatalysis and sensing. Nanomaterials. 2022;12. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12020294
  53. 53. Ma Y, Wu P, Ku M, Guo M, Yang Y, Li X, et al. Organic pollutant degradation for micro-molecule product emission over SiO2 layers-coated g-C3N4 photocatalysts. RSC Adv. 2024;14:6727–37. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA08775A
  54. 54. Weisany W, Razmi J, Pashang D. Improving seed germination and physiological characteristics of maize seedlings under osmotic stress through potassium nano-silicate treatment. Front Plant Sci. 2023;14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2023.1274396
  55. 55. Hao Y, Lv R, Ma C, Adeel M, Zhao Z, Rao Y, et al. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) alleviates cadmium-induced phytotoxicity to rice (Oryza sativa L.). Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-12027-w
  56. 56. Sembada AA, Maki S, Faizal A, Fukuhara T, Suzuki T, Lenggoro IW. The role of silica nanoparticles in promoting the germination of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) seeds. Nanomaterials. 2023;13. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13142110
  57. 57. Jiang Y, Yang J, Li M, Li Y, Zhou P, Wang Q, et al. Effect of silica-based nanomaterials on seed germination and seedling growth of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Nanomaterials. 2022;12. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12234160
  58. 58. Keke L, Yiting L, Xiaohui Y, Yi Y, Junliang Y, Yunfeng C, et al. Silica nanoparticles enhanced seed germination and seedling growth of drought-stressed wheat by modulating antioxidant enzymes and mitigating lipid peroxidation. Environ Sci Nano. 2025;12. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5EN00214A

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.