Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
Plant Science Today (PST)

Review Articles

Vol. 13 No. sp5 (2026): Recent Advances in Agriculture

Balancing crop productivity, soil health and heavy metal dynamics in industrial effluent irrigation of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench)

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.15945
Submitted
8 June 2026
Published
01-09-2026

Abstract

In water-scarce peri-urban agriculture systems of South and Southeast Asia, the use of industrial effluents for irrigation is gaining momentum. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench), being a popular vegetable crop, is grown under effluent-irrigated conditions due to its adaptability and economic importance. The review presented here compiles research articles published from 2000 to 2025 studying the effects of irrigation with distillery, textile, tannery, paper and pulp and sugar mill effluents on okra, focusing on plant growth, physiological response, soil health and heavy metal accumulation. Accumulated evidence demonstrates a concentration-dependent response of okra and soil systems to industrial effluent irrigation. Effluent suitability for agriculture is strongly industry-dependent: distillery and sugar mill effluents, at low dilution, supply useful nitrogen (N), potassium (K) and organic matter with comparatively lower heavy-metal risk, whereas tannery and textile dyeing effluents carry substantially higher chromium, cadmium and lead loads and require treatment before safe reuse. Nitrogen, phosphorus (P), K and organic matter are often supplemented for improved seed germination, vegetative development, chlorophyll production, yield and nutrient availability, particularly at low effluent dilutions (5–25 %). Osmotic stress, oxidative damage, growth inhibition and a reduction in photosynthetic activity occur at concentrations exceeding 50 %. Regardless of effluent type, continued irrigation increases soil salt content, alters microbial and enzyme activity and drives accumulation of heavy metals cadmium, chromium, lead and nickel, which translocate to edible pods and can exceed recommended food safety limits, posing a measurable health concern. Knowledge gaps remain regarding varietal differences in metal uptake, stress tolerance mechanisms, molecular responses and their long-term field-scale implications under tropical conditions. Mitigation strategies showing the most promise include biochar amendment, phytoremediation crop rotation, constructed wetland pre-treatment and precision dilution.

References

  1. 1. FAO. 2025 AQUASTAT Water Data Snapshot. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2025.
  2. 2. Biswas A, Sarkar S, Das S, Dutta S, Choudhury MR, Giri A, et al. Water scarcity: a global hindrance to sustainable development and agricultural production-a critical review. Camb Prisms Water. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1017/wat.2024.16
  3. 3. Dotaniya ML, Meena VD, Saha JK, Dotaniya CK, Mahmoud AE, Meena BL, et al. Reuse of poor-quality water for sustainable crop production in the changing scenario of climate. Environ Dev Sustain. 2023;25:7345–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02365-9
  4. 4. Drechsel P, Scott CA, Raschid-Sally L, Redwood M, Bahri A, editors. Wastewater irrigation and health: assessing and mitigating risks in low-income countries. London: Earthscan/IDRC/IWMI; 2010.
  5. 5. Agrawal M, Singh B, Rajput M, Marshall F, Bell JNB. Effect of air pollution on peri-urban agriculture: a case study. Environ Pollut. 2003;126:323–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-7491(03)00245-8
  6. 6. Ungureanu N, Vlăduț V, Voicu G. Water scarcity and wastewater reuse in crop irrigation. Sustainability. 2020;12:9055. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12219055
  7. 7. Hussain I, Raschid L, Hanjra MA, Marikar F, van der Hoek W. Wastewater use in agriculture: review of impacts and methodological issues in valuing impacts. Working Paper 37. Colombo: International Water Management Institute; 2002.
  8. 8. Nriagu JO, Pacyna JM. Quantitative assessment of worldwide contamination of air, water and soils by trace metals. Nature. 1988;333:134–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/333134a0
  9. 9. FAOSTAT. Crops and livestock products: okra production statistics. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2024.
  10. 10. Benchasri S. Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench) as a valuable vegetable of the world. Ratar Povrt. 2012;49:105–12. https://doi.org/10.5937/ratpov49-1172
  11. 11. Bharagava RN, Chandra R, Rai V. Phytoextraction of trace elements and physiological changes in Indian mustard plants (Brassica nigra L.) grown in post-methanated distillery effluent irrigated soil. Bioresour Technol. 2008;99:8316–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.03.002
  12. 12. Fito J, Tefera N, Kloos H, Van Hulle SW. Physicochemical properties of the sugar industry and ethanol distillery wastewater and their impact on the environment. Sugar Tech. 2019;21:265–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12355-018-0633-z
  13. 13. Scott CA, Faruqui NI, Raschid-Sally L. Wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: management challenges in developing countries. In: Scott CA, Faruqui NI, Raschid-Sally L, editors. Wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: confronting the livelihood and environmental realities. Wallingford: CABI Publishing; 2004. p. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1079/9780851998237.0001
  14. 14. Manegabe BJ, Msagati TA, Ojutalayo AA, Ntabugi MM, Dewar JB, De Bryun K. Assessment of heavy metals pollution in vegetables grown on irrigated soil and their potential threat to human health and global food security. Hyg Environ Health Adv. 2025;14:100129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heha.2025.100129
  15. 15. Chopra AK, Srivastava S, Kumar V, Pathak C. Agro-potentiality of distillery effluent on soil and agronomical characteristics of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (okra). Environ Monit Assess. 2013;185:6635–44.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-3052-8
  16. 16. Umair Hassan M, Aamer M, Umer Chattha M, Haiying T, Khan I, Seleiman MF, et al. Sugarcane distillery spent wash (DSW) as a bio-nutrient supplement: a win-win option for sustainable crop production. Agronomy. 2021;11:183. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11010183
  17. 17. Naveed S, Rehim A, Imran M, Anwar MF, Hussain S. Effect of distillery spentwash fertigation on crop growth, yield and accumulation of potentially toxic elements in rice. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2018;25:31113–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3067-y
  18. 18. Imtiazuddin SM, Mumtaz M, Mallick KA. Pollutants of wastewater characteristics in textile industries. J Basic Appl Sci. 2012;8:554–6. https://doi.org/10.6000/1927-5129.2012.08.02.47
  19. 19. Yaseen DA, Scholz M. Textile dye wastewater characteristics and constituents of synthetic effluents: a critical review. Int J Environ Sci Technol. 2019;16:1193–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-018-2130-z
  20. 20. Nagajyoti PC, Lee KD, Sreekanth TVM. Heavy metals, occurrence and toxicity for plants: a review. Environ Chem Lett. 2010;8:199–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-010-0297-8
  21. 21. Shanker AK, Cervantes C, Loza-Tavera H, Avudainayagam S. Chromium toxicity in plants. Environ Int. 2005;31:739–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2005.02.003
  22. 22. Hubbe MA, Metts JR, Hermosilla D, Blanco M, Yerushalmi L, Haghighat F, et al. Wastewater treatment and reclamation: a review of pulp and paper industry practices and opportunities. BioResources. 2016;11(3). https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.11.3.Hubbe
  23. 23. Kumar V, Chopra AK. Ferti-irrigational effect of paper mill effluent on agronomical characteristics of Abelmoschus esculentus L. (okra). Pak J Biol Sci. 2013;16:1426–37. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2013.1426.1437
  24. 24. Zainith S, Chowdhary P, Bharagava RN. Recent advances in physico-chemical and biological techniques for the management of pulp and paper mill waste. In: Emerging and eco-friendly approaches for waste management. Singapore: Springer; 2018. p. 271–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8669-4_13
  25. 25. Nigam RK, Singh P, Singh JS. Assessment of sugar mill effluent discharge on soil physico-chemical attributes and its correlation with soil microbial biomass in paddy fields. Discov Agric. 2025;11:e15da3155. https://doi.org/10.54905/disssi.v11i24.e15da3155
  26. 26. Bedair R, Elliethy MZ, Mansour MM, Saeed E, El-Sherbeny ME. Effects of irrigation water sources on soil fertility, heavy metal accumulation in both soil and rice (Oryza sativa L.). Plant Soil. 2026;1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-026-08383-0
  27. 27. Yadav RK, Minhas PS, Lal K, Chaturvedi RK, Yadav G, Verma TP. Accumulation of metals in soils, groundwater and edible parts of crops grown under long-term irrigation with sewage mixed industrial effluents. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol. 2015;95:200–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-015-1547-z
  28. 28. Rattan RK, Datta SP, Chhonkar PK, Suribabu K, Singh AK. Long-term impact of irrigation with sewage effluents on heavy metal content in soils, crops and groundwater-a case study. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 2005;109:310–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2005.02.025
  29. 29. Sharma A, Malaviya P. Irrigational impact of untreated and treated brewery-distillery effluent on seed germination of marigold (Tagetes erecta L.). J Environ Biol. 2016;37:115–9.
  30. 30. Tripathi S, Singh K, Singh A, Mishra A, Chandra R. Organo-metallic pollutants of distillery effluent and their toxicity on freshwater fish and germinating Zea mays seeds. Int J Environ Sci Technol. 2022;19:2025–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-021-03233-1
  31. 31. Sadek MB, Hassan J, Saif HB, Biswas A, Sultana S. Toxic effect of textile dyeing effluents on germination, growth, yield and nutritional quality of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus). Int J Ecotoxicol Ecobiol. 2016;1:82–7.
  32. 32. Kumar V, Chopra AK. Fertigation effect of distillery effluent on agronomical practices of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (fenugreek). Environ Monit Assess. 2012;184:1207–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2033-7
  33. 33. Kumar V, Chopra AK. Ferti-irrigational impact of sugar mill effluent on agronomical characteristics of Phaseolus vulgaris (L.) in two seasons. Environ Monit Assess. 2014;186:2469–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3974-4
  34. 34. Goncharuk EA, Zagoskina NV. Heavy metals, their phytotoxicity and the role of phenolic antioxidants in plant stress responses with focus on cadmium: review. Molecules. 2023;28:3921. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28093921
  35. 35. Hayat S, Hayat Q, Alyemeni MN, Wani AS, Pichtel J, Ahmad A. Role of proline under changing environments. Plant Signal Behav. 2012;7:1456–66. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.21949
  36. 36. Sharma P, Dubey RS. Lead toxicity in plants. Braz J Plant Physiol. 2005;17:35–52. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-04202005000100004
  37. 37. Hajihashemi S, Mbarki S, Skalicky M, Noedoost F, Raeisi M, Brestic M. Effect of wastewater irrigation on photosynthesis, growth and anatomical features of two wheat cultivars (Triticum aestivum L.). Water. 2020;12:607. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020607
  38. 38. Hasanuzzaman M, Bhuyan MHMB, Zulfiqar F, Raza A, Mohsin SM, Mahmud JA, et al. Reactive oxygen species and antioxidant defense in plants under abiotic stress: revisiting the crucial role of a universal defense regulator. Antioxidants. 2020;9:681. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9080681
  39. 39. Mousavi A, Pourakbar L, Moghaddam SS. Effects of malic acid and EDTA on oxidative stress and antioxidant enzymes of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) exposed to cadmium stress. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2022;248:114320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114320
  40. 40. Chowdhary P, Yadav A, Singh R, Chandra R, Singh PK, Arora J, et al. Stress response of Triticum aestivum and Brassica juncea in presence of distillery effluent. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol. 2018;57:48–58.
  41. 41. Saleh M, Salehi M, Khanaki S, Ebrahimian H, Liaghat A, Mousavi SM, et al. Effects of treated wastewater irrigation on soil properties, nutrient uptakes and crop yields of agronomic crops under different crop rotations. Agric Water Manag. 2025;316:109585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109585
  42. 42. Gong WJ, Niu ZF, Wang XR, Zhao HP. How the soil microbial communities and activities respond to long-term heavy metal contamination in electroplating contaminated site. Microorganisms. 2021;9:362. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9020362
  43. 43. Dotaniya ML, Rajendiran S, Meena VD, Saha JK, Coumar MV, Kundu S, et al. Influence of chromium contamination on carbon mineralization and enzymatic activities in Vertisol. Agric Res. 2017;6:91–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40003-016-0242-6
  44. 44. Gatica J, Cytryn E. Impact of treated wastewater irrigation on antibiotic resistance in the soil microbiome. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2013;20:3529–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1505-4
  45. 45. Chiroma TM, Ebewele RO, Hymore FK. Comparative assessment of heavy metal levels in soil, vegetables and urban grey wastewater used for irrigation in Yola and Kano. Int Refereed J Eng Sci. 2014;3:1–9.
  46. 46. Khan S, Cao Q, Zheng YM, Huang YZ, Zhu YG. Health risks of heavy metals in contaminated soils and food crops irrigated with wastewater in Beijing, China. Environ Pollut. 2008;152:686–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.056
  47. 47. Singh PK, Deshbhratar PB, Ramteke DS. Effects of sewage wastewater irrigation on soil properties, crop yield and environment. Agric Water Manag. 2012;103:100–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2011.10.022
  48. 48. Barker AV, Pilbeam DJ, editors. Handbook of Plant Nutrition. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2015. https://doi.org/10.1201/b18458
  49. 49. Khaliq MA, Javed MT, Hussain S, Imran M, Mubeen M, Nasim W, et al. Assessment of heavy metal accumulation and health risks in okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) fertigated with wastewater. Int J Food Contam. 2022;9:11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40550-022-00097-2
  50. 50. Khan ZI, Ugulu I, Sahira S, Ahmad K, Ashfaq A, Mehmood N, et al. Determination of toxic metals in fruits of Abelmoschus esculentus grown in contaminated soils with different irrigation sources by spectroscopic method. Int J Environ Res. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41742-018-0110-2
  51. 51. Clemens S. Toxic metal accumulation, responses to exposure and mechanisms of tolerance in plants. Biochimie. 2006;88:1707–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2006.07.003
  52. 52. Gwana AM, Edet BE, Badawi HL, Bala HM, Marte MU, Mohammed A, et al. Appraisal of some heavy metals and elements in irrigated vegetables and fruit cultivated in College Farm, Maiduguri, Nigeria. Int J Appl Agric Sci. 2017;3:78–86. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijaas.20170303.14
  53. 53. Aftab K, Iqbal S, Khan MR, Busquets R, Noreen R, Ahmad N, et al. Wastewater-irrigated vegetables are a significant source of heavy metal contaminants: toxicity and health risks. Molecules. 2023;28:1371. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28031371
  54. 54. Muchuweti M, Birkett JW, Chinyanga E, Zvauya R, Scrimshaw MD, Lester JN. Heavy metal content of vegetables irrigated with mixtures of wastewater and sewage sludge in Zimbabwe: implications for human health. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 2006;112:41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2005.04.028
  55. 55. Singh A, Sharma RK, Agrawal M, Marshall FM. Health risk assessment of heavy metals via dietary intake of foodstuffs from the wastewater irrigated site of a dry tropical area of India. Food Chem Toxicol. 2010;48:611–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2009.11.041
  56. 56. Khan MN, Aslam MA, Muhsinah AB, Uddin J. Heavy metals in vegetables: screening health risks of irrigation with wastewater in peri-urban areas of Bhakkar, Pakistan. Toxics. 2023;11:460. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11050460
  57. 57. Balkhair KS, Ashraf MA. Field accumulation risks of heavy metals in soil and vegetable crop irrigated with sewage water in western region of Saudi Arabia. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2016;23:S32–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2015.09.023
  58. 58. Mapanda F, Mangwayana EN, Nyamangara J, Giller KE. The effect of long-term irrigation using wastewater on heavy-metal contents of soils, crops and groundwater-a case study in Harare, Zimbabwe. Agric Ecosyst Environ. 2005;107:151–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2004.11.005
  59. 59. Woldetsadik D, Drechsel P, Keraita B, Itanna F, Gebrekidan H. Heavy metal accumulation and health risk assessment in wastewater-irrigated urban vegetable farming sites of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Int J Food Contam. 2017;4:9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40550-017-0053-y
  60. 60. Naciri R, Chtouki M, El Maalam L, Hirt H, Belkachach D, Oukarroum A. Phosphate-modified biochar attenuates cadmium availability in contaminated soil and reduces its transfer to tomato fruits. Environ Res. 2025;279:121775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.121775
  61. 61. Beesley L, Marmiroli M. The immobilisation and retention of soluble arsenic, cadmium and zinc by biochar. Environ Pollut. 2011;159:474–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.10.016
  62. 62. Rajapaksha AU, Chen SS, Tsang DCW, Zhang M, Vithanage M, Mandal S, et al. Engineered/designer biochar for contaminant removal/immobilization from soil and water: potential and implication of biochar modification. Chemosphere. 2016;148:276–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.01.043
  63. 63. Li X, Li R, Zhan M, Hou Q, Zhang H, Wu G, et al. Combined magnetic biochar and ryegrass enhanced the remediation effect of soils contaminated with multiple heavy metals. Environ Int. 2024;185:108498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2024.108498
  64. 64. Ali H, Khan E, Sajad MA. Phytoremediation of heavy metals-concepts and applications. Chemosphere. 2013;91:869–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.01.075
  65. 65. Gurajala HK, Cao X, Lin T, Ramesh TM, Lu M, Yang X. Comparative assessment of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) genotypes for phytoremediation of Cd and Pb contaminated soils. Environ Pollut. 2019;254:113085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113085
  66. 66. Dary M, Chamber-Pérez MA, Palomares AJ, Pajuelo E. In situ phytostabilisation of heavy metal polluted soils using Lupinus luteus inoculated with metal resistant plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria. J Hazard Mater. 2010;177:323–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.12.035
  67. 67. Chengatt AP, Sarath NG, Sebastian DP, Mohanan NS, Sindhu ES, George S, et al. Chelate assisted phytoextraction for effective rehabilitation of heavy metal(loid)s contaminated lands. Int J Phytoremediation. 2023;25:981–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2022.2124233
  68. 68. Vymazal J. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: a review. Ecol Eng. 2021;170:106253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2021.106318
  69. 69. Kadlec RH, Wallace S. Treatment Wetlands. 2nd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2009. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420012514
  70. 70. Basma L, Asma L, Abdelhamid B. Irrigation and fertigation for greenhouse cultivation. In: Greenhouse Technology for Sustainable Agriculture. 2025. p. 63–84. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003455967-3
  71. 71. Alam AU, Clyne D, Deen MJ. A low-cost multi-parameter water quality monitoring system. Sensors. 2021;21:3775.https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113775

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.