Cotton (Gossypium spp.) is one of the world’s most important fibre crops, yet its sustainability is increasingly challenged by evolving pest complexes, intensified pesticide use, climate change and climate variability. The evidence indicates current knowledge on pest dynamics, pesticide dependence and ecological interactions in cotton agroecosystems, highlighting the shift from bollworm-dominated pest complexes to the increasing prevalence of secondary pests following the widespread adoption of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton. Although Bt (Cry toxin)-based transgenic cotton technology initially reduced insecticide use against the bollworm complex, primarily lepidopteran species, the emergence of resistance among bollworms and the upsurge of certain sucking pests in recent decades have reinstated insecticide dependence for pest management. This has led to ecological imbalance, non-target toxicity, the decline of pollinator populations and natural enemy communities, biodiversity loss, environmental contamination, accumulation of residues in products and yield challenges, in addition to increased production costs. The review emphasises the critical role of integrated pest management (IPM) strategies that integrate biological control, habitat diversification, resistant cultivars and threshold-based pesticide applications to restore ecological stability. Alternative approaches such as botanical pesticides, nanoformulations and plant volatile-mediated pest regulation are highlighted as promising tools for sustainable pest control. Advances in precision agriculture, including artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based pesticide delivery systems, have the potential to improve pest surveillance and reduce chemical inputs. Supply-chain procurement, certification, traceability and consumer demand can encourage lower-pesticide production, although these mechanisms require fair price incentives to avoid transferring compliance costs to smallholders. Sustainable cotton therefore requires region-specific, climate-resilient, evidence-based IPM supported by extension, market incentives, resistance monitoring and coordinated policy.
