Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
Plant Science Today (PST)

Review Articles

Early Access

Tissue sampling, extraction methods, characterisation and applications of Sclerocarya birrea (marula) extracts: A review

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.11649
Submitted
6 September 2025
Published
19-03-2026

Abstract

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. (marula), with its rich phytochemical content, is highly regarded in southern African communities. Characterisation studies on fruit, bark and other parts of the plant identified valuable phytochemicals like tannins, terpenes, flavonoids, alkaloids, oils, vitamins and many others which calls for unlimited research on marula applications. Though not usually very efficient, use of hand tools in the sampling of roots, bark, leaves and fruits is the most practised method of harvesting due to affordability in communities. Marula roots, leaves and barks are exploited mostly for their medicinal phytochemical content, fruits for their beverage and nutritional benefits while seeds are a source of food and oils used for skin care. Biodiesel, skin care products and alcoholic beverages production have been reported among commercial opportunities for S. birrea. Community based commercial activities involve vending wine, oils, jam and butter as a source of income. Other potential areas of application including paint additives, green corrosion inhibitors and surfactant manufacture among others, need research attention to scale up on S. birrea economic value and commercialisation. More sector specific organisations are required to coordinate knowledge and operations in the marula economy to widen the applications and adoption of marula products into the global markets. Future demand and interest on S. birrea-based products calls for sustainable exploitation and domestication of the plant as alternative conservation measures.

References

  1. 1. Maroyi A. Local knowledge and use of marula [Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst.] in south-central Zimbabwe. Indian J Tradit Knowl. 2013;12(3):398–403.
  2. 2. Sinthumule NI, Mashau ML. Attitudes of local communities towards marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra) conservation in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Resources. 2019;8(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources8010022
  3. 3. Cook RM, Henley MD. Complexities associated with elephant impact on Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra in the Greater Kruger National Park. S Afr J Bot. 2019;121:543–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2019.01.016
  4. 4. Helm CV, Scott SL, Witkowski ETF. Reproductive potential and seed fate of Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra in low-altitude savannas of South Africa. S Afr J Bot. 2011;77(3):650–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2011.02.003
  5. 5. Jacobs OS, Briggs R. Status and population structure of the marula in the Kruger National Park. S Afr J Wildl Res. 2002;32(1):1–12.
  6. 6. Makopa TP, Modikwe G, Vrhovsek U, Lotti C, Sampaio JP, Zhou N. The marula and elephant intoxication myth: Biodiversity of fermenting yeasts associated with marula fruits (Sclerocarya birrea). FEMS Microbes. 2023;4:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsmc/xtad018
  7. 7. Mguni S, Chiwara P, Gwate O. Utilisation and management of Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. in southern Zimbabwe. Cogent Soc Sci. 2023;9(1):1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2208933
  8. 8. Wynberg R, Laird S, Botha J, den Adel S, McHardy T. The management, use and commercialisation of marula: Policy issues; 2002.
  9. 9. Schripsema J, Augustyn W, Viljoen A. Characterisation of Sclerocarya birrea seed oil and geographical origin assessment using NMR and cluster analysis. Phytochem Anal. 2023;34(8):959–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/pca.3264
  10. 10. Beltrán-Rodríguez L, Valdez-Hernández JI, Saynes-Vásqu8ez A, Blancas J, Sierra-Huelsz JA, Cristians S, et al. Sustaining medicinal barks: Survival and regeneration of Amphipterygium adstringens. Sustainability. 2021;13(5):1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052860
  11. 11. Legodi LM, Lekganyane MA, Moganedi KLM. Morula tree: From fruit to wine through spontaneous fermentation. Processes. 2022;10(9):1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10091706
  12. 12. Chauke H, Silue Y, Aremu AO, Fawole OA. Nutritional value and bioactivities of Sclerocarya birrea seeds. S Afr J Bot. 2025;179:188–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2025.02.008
  13. 13. Hall JB, O’Brien EM, Sinclair FL. Sclerocarya birrea: A monograph. Bangor: University of Wales; 2002.
  14. 14. Chen JJ, Zhang J, He XQ. Tissue regeneration after bark girdling. Physiol Plant. 2014;151(2):147–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppl.12112
  15. 15. Gawanka MS, Haldankar PM, Salvi BR, Parulekar YR, Dalvi NV, Kulkarni MM, et al. Effect of girdling on flowering and fruit quality: A review. Adv Agric Res Technol J. 2019;3(2):201–14.
  16. 16. Moore GM. Ring-barking and girdling: Vascular connections between roots and crown. Proc 14th Natl Street Tree Symp; Richmond; 2013.
  17. 17. Helm CV. Investigating the life history strategy of Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra [thesis]. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand; 2011.
  18. 18. Eberhardt TL, So CL, Leduc DJ, Labbé N, Warren JM. Changes in bark composition under elevated CO₂. Trees. 2016;614. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-015-1254-8
  19. 19. Williams VL, Witkowski ETF, Balkwill K. Bark thickness–DBH relationships in medicinal trees. S Afr J Bot. 2007;73(3):449–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2007.04.001
  20. 20. Pandey S, Pant P. Tree bark extracts for green chemicals in Nepal. For Sci Technol. 2023;19(1):68–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/21580103.2023.2175729
  21. 21. Fahey TJ, Yanai RD, Gonzales KE, Lombardi JA. Sampling roots from rocky forest soils. Ecosphere. 2017;8(6):e01863. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1863
  22. 22. Freschet GT, Roumet C. Sampling roots to capture plant and soil functions. Funct Ecol. 2017;31(8):1506–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12883
  23. 23. Koyama T, Murakami S, Karasawa T, Ejiri M, Shiono K. Complete root specimen sampling using root boxes. Plant Methods. 2021;17(1): 97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13007-021-200798-3
  24. 24. Park BB, Yanai RD, Vadeboncoeur MA, Hamburg SP. Estimating root biomass in rocky soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J. 2007;71(1):206–13. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2005.0329
  25. 25. Hruska J, Čermák J, Sustek S. Mapping tree roots with ground penetrating radar. Tree Physiol. 1999;19(2):125–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/19.2.125
  26. 26. Rau BM, Melvin AM, Johnson DW, Goodale CL, Blank RR, Fredriksen G, et al. Revisiting soil C and N sampling. Soil Sci. 2011;176(6):273–79. https://doi.org/10.1097/SS.0b013e31821d6d4a
  27. 27. Willett DA, Kamyar M, Rister B. Accuracy of ground-penetrating radar for pavement analysis. J Transp Eng. 2006;132(1):96–103. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(2006)132:1(96)
  28. 28. Bassuk N, Grabosky J, Mucciardi A, Raffel G. Ground-penetrating radar locates tree roots under pavement. Arboric Urban For. 2011;37(4):160–66. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2011.021
  29. 29. Bachiri T, Alsharahi G, Khamlichi A, Bezzazi M, Faize A. GPR application in civil engineering. Int J Emerg Trends Eng Res. 2020;8(5):1839–44. https://doi.org/10.30534/ijeter/2020/59852020
  30. 30. Nadezhdina N, Čermák J. Instrumental methods for root system studies. J Exp Bot. 2003;54:1511–21. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erg154
  31. 31. Stokes A, Fourcaud T, Hruska J, Čermák J, Nadyezdhina N, Nadyezdhin V, Praus L. Evaluating methods to study urban tree roots using GPR. J Arboric. 2002;28(1):2–10. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2002.001
  32. 32. Barillot CDC, Sarde CO, Bert V, Tarnaud E, Cochet N. Sampling rhizosphere and rhizoplan bacteria. Ann Microbiol. 2013;63(2):471–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13213-012-0491-y
  33. 33. Paul-Victor C, Dalle Vacche S, Sordo F, Fink S, Speck T, Michaud V, et al. Mechanical damage and wound healing in flax stems. PLoS One. 2017;12(10):1–23. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0185958
  34. 34. Perroy RL, Meier P, Collier E, Hughes MA, Brill E, Sullivan T, et al. Aerial branch sampling to detect forest pathogens. Drones. 2022;6(10):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/drones6100275
  35. 35. Ilek A, Kucza J, Morkisz K. Hydrological properties of bark: Interspecific variability. Folia For Pol Ser A. 2017;59(2):110–22. https://doi.org/10.1515/ffp-2017-0011
  36. 36. Lyrene PM. Late pruning and flower bud formation in rabbiteye blueberry. HortScience. 1984;19(1):98–99. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI.19.1.98
  37. 37. Ryder CM, Moore GM. Arboricultural and economic benefits of formative pruning. Arboric Urban For. 2013;39(1):17–24. https://doi.org/10.48044/jauf.2013.004
  38. 38. Hahn C, Vospernik S. Sampling designs for bark stripping by red deer. Eur J For Res. 2024;143(4):1069–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-024-01670-4
  39. 39. Pandey AK, Yadav S, Sahu SK. Sustainable bark harvesting in Holarrhena antidysenterica. Int J Green Pharm. 2011;5(2):107–12. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-8258.85166
  40. 40. Käslin F, Baur T, Meier P, Koller P, Buchmann N, D’Odorico P, et al. Novel twig sampling method by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Front For Glob Change. 2018;1:2. https://doi.org/10.3389/ffgc.2018.00002
  41. 41. Krakowska-Sieprawska A, Kiełbasa A, Rafińska K, Ligor M, Buszewski B. Modern pre-treatment of plant material. Molecules. 2022;27. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030730
  42. 42. Moldoveanu SC. Sample preparation for chromatography. J Chromatogr Sci. 2004;42(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/chromsci/42.1
  43. 43. Moomin A, Russell WR, Knott RM, Scobbie L, Mensah KB, Adu-Gyamfi PKT, et al. Phytochemical profile of Terminalia ivorensis. BMC Plant Biol. 2023;23(1):162. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-023-04144-8
  44. 44. Cádiz-Gurrea ML, Lozano-Sánchez J, Fernández-Ochoa Á, Segura-Carretero A. Green extraction of bioactives from Sclerocarya birrea bark. Molecules. 2019;24(5):1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24050966
  45. 45. Szmechtyk T, Małecka M. Phytochemicals from bark extracts in thermosetting polymers. Materials. 2024;17:1–31. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17092123
  46. 46. Chan EWC, Lim YY, Wong SK, Lim KK, Tan SP, Lianto FS, et al. Drying methods and antioxidant properties of ginger leaves. Food Chem. 2009;113(1):166–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.07.090
  47. 47. Putriani N, Perdana J, Meiliana, Nugrahedi PY. Thermal processing effects on phytochemicals. Food Rev Int. 2022; 38:783–811. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2020.1745826
  48. 48. Antony A, Farid M. Temperature effects on polyphenols during extraction. Appl Sci. 2022;12:1-14. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12042107
  49. 49. Popp M, Lied W, Meyer AJ, Richter A, Schiller P, Schwitte H. Sample preservation for organic compound analysis. J Exp Bot. 1996;47:1469–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/47.10.1469
  50. 50. Luksta I, Spalvins K. Extraction of bioactive compounds: A review. Environ Clim Technol. 2023;27(1):422–37. https://doi.org/10.2478/rtuect-2023-0031
  51. 51. Autor E, Cornejo A, Bimbela F, Maisterra M, Gandía LM, Martínez- Merino V. Phenolic extraction from Populus bark. Biomolecules. 2022;12(4):1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom12040539
  52. 52. Bitwell C, Sen IS, Luke C, Kakoma MK. Extraction techniques for phytochemicals. Sci Afr. 2023;19:1-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2023.e01585
  53. 53. Abubakar AR, Haque M. Preparation of medicinal plants for experimental use. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2020;12:1–10. https://doi.org/10.4103/jpbs.JPBS 175 19
  54. 54. Jibhkate YJ, Awachat AP, Lohiya RT, Umekar MJ, Hemke AT, Gupta KR. Extraction in pharmaceutical research. Int J Sci Res Arch. 2023;10(1):555–68. https://doi.org/10.30574/ijsra.2023.10.1.0768
  55. 55. Kaur H. Extraction methods in medicinal plants. Int J Adv Manag Technol Eng Sci. 2018;8(3):1314-20.
  56. 56. Chatzimitakos T, Athanasiadis V, Kalompatsios D, Mantiniotou M, Bozinou E, Lalas SI. Pulsed electric field extraction from food waste. Biomass. 2023;3:367–401. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomass3040022
  57. 57. Majekodunmi SO. Review of extraction in pharmaceutical research. Merit Res J Med Med Sci. 2015;3(11):521–27.
  58. 58. Nortjie E, Basitere M, Moyo D, Nyamukamba P. Extraction methods for antimicrobial textiles. Plants. 2022;11(15):1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11152011
  59. 59. Ghenabzia I, Hemmami H, Amor IB, Zeghoud S, Seghir BB, Hammoudi R. Extraction methods and biological activity. Int J Second Metab. 2023;10:469–94. https://doi.org/10.21448/ijsm.1225936
  60. 60. Łubek-Nguyen A, Ziemichód W, Olech M. Application of enzyme-assisted extraction for the recovery of natural bioactive compounds for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications. Appl Sci. 2022;12(7):32. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12073232
  61. 61. Fonmboh DJ, Abah ER, Fokunang TE, Herve B, Teke GN, Rose NM, et al. Methods for extraction and characterization of medicinal plants. Asian J Res Med Pharm Sci. 2020;9:31–57. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajrimps/2020/v9i230152
  62. 62. Sasidharan S, Chen Y, Saravanan D, Sundram KM, Latha LY. Extraction and characterization of bioactive compounds. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2011;8(1):1–10. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v8i1.60483
  63. 63. Ng KS, Mohd Zin Z, Mohdmaidin N, Mamat H, Juhari NH, Zainol MK. HPLC flavonoid profiling of napier grass tea. Food Res. 2021;5(1):65–71. https://doi.org/10.26656/fr.2017.5(1).311
  64. 64. Boligon AA, Athayde ML. Importance of HPLC in plant extract analysis. Austin Chromatogr. 2014;1(3):1-2.
  65. 65. Pharmawati M, Wrasiati LP. Phytochemical screening of Enhalus acoroides leaves. Malays J Anal Sci. 2020;24(1):70–77.
  66. 66. Jadhav D, Ghatage M. Secondary metabolites of Asplenium indicum by TLC. J Sci Res. 2021;65(6):137–41. https://doi.org/10.37398/JSR.2021.650623
  67. 67. Abdulhamid A, Fakai I, Ogwihi OJ. Phytochemical and antibacterial activity of Carica papaya leaves. Int J Med Plants Nat Prod. 2017;3(1):11–15. https://doi.org/10.20431/2454-7999.0301002
  68. 68. Russo D, Kenny O, Smyth TJ, Milella L, Hossain MB, Diop MS, et al. Phytochemical profiling of Sclerocarya birrea. ISRN Chromatogr. 2013; 2013:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/283462
  69. 69. Oladimeji AV, Valan M. HPLC techniques for phytochemistry. Int J Chem Stud. 2020;8(6):2590–96. https://doi.org/10.22271/chemi.2020.v8.i6ak.11174
  70. 70. Thirumal Y, Laavu S. HPLC profile of medicinal plant extracts. J Aquac Res Dev. 2017;8(4):1-4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-9546.1000484
  71. 71. Dıblan S, Kadiroğlu P, Aydemir LY. FT-IR characterization of legumes. Food Health. 2018;80–88. https://doi.org/10.3153/FH18008
  72. 72. Ashokkumar R, Ramaswamy M. FTIR phytochemical screening of medicinal plants. Int J Curr Microbiol App Sci. 2014;3(1):395–406.
  73. 73. Gomathi D, Kalaiselvi M, Ravikumar G, Devaki K, Uma C. GC-MS analysis of Evolvulus alsinoides. J Food Sci Technol. 2015;52(2):1212–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-013-1105-9
  74. 74. Konappa N, Udayashankar AC, Krishnamurthy S, Pradeep CK, Chowdappa S, Jogaiah S. GC-MS analysis of Amomum nilgiricum. Sci Rep. 2020;10:16438. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73442-0
  75. 75. Iordache A, Culea M, Gherman C, Cozar O. Characterization of plant extracts by GC-MS. Nucl Instrum Methods Phys Res B. 2009;267(2):338–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nimb.2008.10.021
  76. 76. Ibrahim MM, Adam GO, Saad Mokhtar M. Chemical characterization of Sclerocarya birrea seed oil. Sch Int J Chem Mater Sci. 2025;8(2):44–48.
  77. 77. Njoku VO, Obi C, Onyema OM. Phytochemical constituents of selected medicinal plants. Afr J Biotechnol. 2011;10(66):15020–24. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB11.1948
  78. 78. Mohammed MM, Adamu HM, Magashi LA, Sarkinnoma A, Daniel S, Zakiyya RM, et al. Purification of Sclerocarya birrea bark extracts. Int J Modell Appl Sci Res. 2023;28(9):141–45.
  79. 79. Marula company, the marula journey (n.d) https://marulacompany.rdpress.com
  80. 80. Dorothy MZ, Suinyuy TN, Lubaale J, Peter BO. Physicochemical properties of marula fruit juice. Food Sci Nutr. 2023;11(8):4607–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.3423
  81. 81. Mashau ME, Kgatla TE, Makhado MV, Mikasi MS, Ramashia SE. Nutritional and biological properties of marula fruit. Int J Food Prop. 2022;25(1):1549–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2022.2064491
  82. 82. Lekhuleni IL, Shabalala A, Maluleke MK. Quality and value-added products of marula fruit. Discov Food. 2024;4(1);35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44187-024-00108-5
  83. 83. Manzo LM, Bako HD, Idrissa M. Antibacterial activity of Sclerocarya birrea extracts. Int J Enteric Pathog. 2017;5(4):127–31. https://doi.org/10.15171/ijep.2017.29
  84. 84. Mariod AA, Abdelwahab SI. Sclerocarya birrea: Nutritional and medicinal uses. Food Rev Int. 2012;28(4):375–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2012.6607
  85. 85. Manyeula F, Loeto O, Phalaagae K, Baleseng L, Sebolai T, Molapisi M, et al. Marula kernel cake in broiler diets. S Afr J Anim Sci. 2022;52(6):802–10. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajas.v52i6.06
  86. 86. Robinson E, Lukman A, Bello A. Sclerocarya birrea seed oil as bioenergy. Int J Agric Biol Eng. 2012;5(3):59–67.
  87. 87. Olas B. Marula [Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst.] products as food and medicine. Front Pharmacol. 2025;16:1552355. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025.1552355
  88. 88. Zakeri A, Bahmani E, Aghdam ASR. Plant extracts as green corrosion inhibitors. Corros Commun. 2022;5:25–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corcom.2022.03.002
  89. 89. Holla BR, Mahesh R, Manjunath HR, Anjanapura VR. Plant extracts as corrosion inhibitors for steel. Heliyon. 2024;10(14);e33748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e33748
  90. 90. Sheydaei M. Plant extracts as green corrosion inhibitors. Surfaces. 2024;7:380–403. https://doi.org/10.3390/surfaces7020024
  91. 91. Hossain N, Aminul Islam M, Asaduzzaman Chowdhury M. Plant extracted inhibitors for corrosion reduction. Results Chem.2023;5(7):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rechem.2023.100883
  92. 92. Bandeira RM, Lima FP, Nunes MS, dos Santos EC, dos Santos Júnior JR, de Matos JME, et al. Green plant-based corrosion inhibitors. Surf Sci Technol. 2025;3(19):1–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44251-025-00084-7
  93. 93. Meena O, Kaushal S, Kumar S, Dalal J. Euphorbia neriifolia extracts as corrosion inhibitors. Discov Mater. 2024;4(1):102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43939-024-00157-8
  94. 94. Hernández-Sánchez SE, Flores-De los Rios JP, Monreal-Romero HA, Flores-Holguin NR, Rodríguez-Valdez LM, Sánchez-Carrillo M, et al. Ruta graveolens extract as corrosion inhibitor. Metals. 2024;14(11):1267. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14111267
  95. 95. Shathani P, Ogunmuyiwa E, Obadele B, Oladijo O. Phytochemical characterization of marula leaf extract. Sci Phytochem. 2025;4(2):91–97. https://doi.org/10.58920/sciphy04023
  96. 96. Hlangwani E, van Hal PH, Moganedi KLM, Dlamini BC. Responsible production and consumption of marula fruit. Front Sustain Food Syst. 2023;7:294437. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1294437
  97. 97. Mokgolodi NC, Ding YF, Setshogo MP, Ma C, Liu YJ. Domestication and commercialization of marula. For Stud China. 2011;13(1):36–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11632-011-0110-1
  98. 98. Munna AH, Amuri NA, Hieronimo P, Woiso DA. Global suitability mapping for Sclerocarya birrea. Front Biogeogr. 2023;15(4):e60181. https://doi.org/10.21425/F5FBG60181
  99. 99. ABioSA. Accessing international markets for marula fruit and oil. Pretoria: Environmental Affairs, Republic of South Africa; 2020.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.