Skip to main navigation menu Skip to main content Skip to site footer
Plant Science Today (PST)

Research Articles

Early Access

Effect of salt stress on the morphology, physiology and biochemical parameters of Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal: A medicinally important plant

DOI
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.10098
Submitted
17 June 2025
Published
09-03-2026

Abstract

Salt stress negatively impacts the growth of medicinal plants like Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, resulting in loss of biomass and usability of its therapeutic secondary metabolic compounds, such as withanolides. This study investigates the effects of varying salinity levels (0 mM [control],   25 mM, 50 mM, 75 mM, 100 mM, 125 mM, 150 mM, 175 mM and 200 mM) on the morphological, growth and physiological parameters of W. somnifera. Morphological traits such as shoot length, root length and fresh and dry weight of the plants showed a negative correlation with salt stress. The results of biochemical analysis indicate a noticeable decline in chlorophyll a, b and total chlorophyll content, carbohydrate and protein levels with increasing salt concentration, while important phytochemicals like proline, phenols and flavonoid content exhibited an increase, consequently increasing the antioxidant activity executed by such metabolites as well. Most notably, Withaferin A and Withanolide A, important secondary metabolites responsible for the therapeutic properties of the plant, showed conflicting trends, with Withanolide A decreasing but Withaferin A increasing with an increase in stress, suggesting differences in the activities of their metabolic pathways under stress. The findings highlight the significant impact of salinity on both the growth and medicinal quality of W. somnifera, with the increase in Withaferin A with stress indicating an opportunity to explore this trend for achieving higher yield for commercial use in the pharmaceutical industry.

References

  1. 1. Xiao F, Zhou H. Plant salt response: perception, signaling and tolerance. Front Plant Sci. 2022;13:1053699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.1053699
  2. 2. Zahra N, Al Hinai MS, Hafeez MB, Rehman A, Wahid A, Siddique KHM, et al. Regulation of photosynthesis under salt stress and associated tolerance mechanisms. Plant Physiol Biochem. 2022;178:55–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2022.03.003
  3. 3. Hnilickova H, Kraus K, Vachova P, Hnilicka F. Salinity stress affects photosynthesis, malondialdehyde formation and proline content in Portulaca oleracea L. Plants (Basel). 2021;10(5):845. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10050845
  4. 4. Huang L, Wu DZ, Zhang GP. Advances in studies on ion transporters involved in salt tolerance and breeding crop cultivars with high salt tolerance. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2020;21(6):426–41. https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B1900510
  5. 5. Liu J, Fu C, Li G, Khan MN, Wu H. ROS homeostasis and plant salt tolerance: plant nanobiotechnology updates. Sustainability. 2021;13(6):3552. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063552
  6. 6. Tanveer K, Gilani S, Hussain Z, Ishaq R, Adeel M, Ilyas N. Effect of salt stress on tomato plant and the role of calcium. J Plant Nutr. 2020;43(1):28–35. https://doi.org/10.1080/01904167.2019.1659324
  7. 7. Dar NJ, Ahmad M. Neurodegenerative diseases and Withania somnifera (L.). J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;256:112769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112769
  8. 8. Tandon N, Yadav SS. Safety and clinical effectiveness of Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal root in human ailments. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020;255:112768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.112768
  9. 9. Mukherjee PK, Banerjee S, Biswas S, Das B, Kar A, Katiyar CK. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal - modern perspectives of an ancient Rasayana from Ayurveda. J Ethnopharmacol. 2021;264:113157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2020.113157
  10. 10. Singh A, Raza A, Amin S, Damodaran C, Sharma AK. Recent advances in the chemistry and therapeutic evaluation of naturally occurring and synthetic withanolides. Molecules. 2022;27(3):886. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030886
  11. 11. Sangwan NS, Sangwan RS. Secondary metabolites of traditional medical plants: a case study of ashwagandha (Withania somnifera). In: Ramawat K, editor. Plant Cell Monographs. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2014. p. 325–67. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-41787-0_11
  12. 12. Muchate NS, Nikalje GC, Rajurkar NS, Suprasanna P, Nikam TD. Plant salt stress: adaptive responses, tolerance mechanism and bioengineering for salt tolerance. Bot Rev. 2016;82(4):371–406. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-016-9173-y
  13. 13. Ahmad R, Hussain S, Anjum MA, Khalid MF, Saqib M, Zakir I, et al. Oxidative stress and antioxidant defense mechanisms in plants under salt stress. In: Hasanuzzaman M, Hakeem KR, Nahar K, Alharby HF, editors. Plant abiotic stress tolerance: agronomic, molecular and biotechnological approaches. Cham: Springer; 2019. p. 191–205. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06118-0_8
  14. 14. Arif Y, Singh P, Siddiqui H, Bajguz A, Hayat S. Salinity induced physiological and biochemical changes in plants: an omic approach towards salt stress tolerance. Plant Physiol Biochem. 2020;156:64–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.08.042
  15. 15. Salim AA, Chin YW, Kinghorn AD. Drug discovery from plants. In: Ramawat KG, Merillon JM, editors. Bioactive molecules and medicinal plants. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2008. p. 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74603-4_1
  16. 16. Munns R, James RA, Läuchli A. Approaches to increasing the salt tolerance of wheat and other cereals. J Exp Bot. 2006;57(5):1025–43. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erj100
  17. 17. Hasan H, Ali M, Javaid A, Liaqat A, Hussain S, Siddique R, et al. Cellular mechanism of salinity tolerance in wheat. In: Ozturk M, Gul A, editors. Climate change and food security with emphasis on wheat. London: Academic Press; 2020. p. 55–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819527-7.00004-2
  18. 18. Zhu J, Fan Y, Shabala S, Li C, Lv C, Guo B, et al. Understanding mechanisms of salinity tolerance in barley by proteomic and biochemical analysis of near-isogenic lines. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(4):1516. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21041516
  19. 19. Abdelrady WA, Ma Z, Elshawy EE, Wang L, Askri H, Ibrahim Z, et al. Physiological and biochemical mechanisms of salt tolerance in barley under salinity stress. Plant Stress. 2024;11:100403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stress.2024.100403
  20. 20. Li Z, Wang W, Li G, Guo K, Harvey P, Chen Q, et al. MAPK-mediated regulation of growth and essential oil composition in a salt-tolerant peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) under NaCl stress. Protoplasma. 2016;253(6):1541–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00709-015-0915-1
  21. 21. Caliskan O, Kurt D, Temizel KE, Odabas MS. Effect of salt stress and irrigation water on growth and development of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). Open Agric. 2017;2(1):589–94. https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2017-0062
  22. 22. Rajalakshmi K, Banu N. Extraction and estimation of chlorophyll from medicinal plants. Int J Sci Res. 2015;4(11):209–12. https://doi.org/10.21275/v4i11.NOV151021
  23. 23. Dubois M, Gilles KA, Hamilton JK, Rebers PA, Smith F. Colorimetric method for determination of sugars and related substances. Anal Chem. 1956;28(3):350–56. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60111a017
  24. 24. Lowry OH, Rosebrough NJ, Farr AL, Randall RJ. Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J Biol Chem. 1951;193(1):265–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9258(19)52451-6
  25. 25. Bates LS, Waldren RP, Teare ID. Rapid determination of free proline for water-stress studies. Plant Soil. 1973;39(1):205–07. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00018060
  26. 26. Sembiring EN, Elya B, Sauriasari R. Phytochemical screening, total flavonoid and total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of different parts of Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Pharmacogn J. 2017;10(1):123–27. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2018.1.22
  27. 27. Senthilkumar M, Amaresan N, Sankaranarayanan A. Estimation of catalase. In: Plant-microbe interactions: Springer protocols handbooks. New York (NY): Springer US; 2021. p. 113–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1080-0_28
  28. 28. Senthilkumar M, Amaresan N, Sankaranarayanan A. Estimation of ascorbate peroxidase (APX). In: Plant-microbe interactions: Springer protocols handbooks. New York (NY): Springer US; 2021. p. 119–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1080-0_30
  29. 29. Blois MS. Antioxidant determinations by the use of a stable free radical. Nature. 1958;181(4617):1199–200. https://doi.org/10.1038/1811199a0
  30. 30. Chung IM, Ali M, Praveen N, Yu BR, Kim SH, Ahmad A. New polyglucopyranosyl and polyarabinopyranosyl fatty acid derivatives from the fruits of Lycium chinense and its antioxidant activity. Food Chem. 2014;151:435–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.11.061
  31. 31. Praveen N, Murthy HN. Production of withanolide-A from adventitious root cultures of Withania somnifera. Acta Physiol Plant. 2010;32(5):1017–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11738-010-0489-7
  32. 32. Tuteja N, Peter Singh L, Gill SS, Gill R, Tuteja R. Salinity stress: a major constraint in crop production. In: Tuteja N, Gill SS, Tuteja R, editors. Improving crop resistance to abiotic stress. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH; 2012. p. 71–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527632930.ch4
  33. 33. Pottosin I, Velarde-Buendía AM, Bose J, Zepeda-Jazo I, Shabala S, Dobrovinskaya O. Cross-talk between reactive oxygen species and polyamines in regulation of ion transport across the plasma membrane: implications for plant adaptive responses. J Exp Bot. 2014;65(5):1271–83. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ert423
  34. 34. Gharsallah C, Fakhfakh H, Grubb D, Gorsane F. Effect of salt stress on ion concentration, proline content, antioxidant enzyme activities and gene expression in tomato cultivars. AoB Plants. 2016;8:plw055. https://doi.org/10.1093/aobpla/plw055
  35. 35. Kumari L, Sharma MC. GC-MS analysis and antioxidant potential of petroleum extract of seeds of Psoralea corylifolia. J Adv Sci Res. 2023;14(7):41–46. https://doi.org/10.55218/JASR.202314706
  36. 36. Hassanpour SH, Doroudi A. Review of the antioxidant potential of flavonoids as a subgroup of polyphenols and partial substitute for synthetic antioxidants. Avicenna J Phytomed. 2023;13(4):354–76.
  37. 37. Babeanu C, Ciobanu A. Total phenolic, total flavonoids content and antioxidant activity in fruits of four plum (Prunus domestica L.) cultivars. Ann Univ Craiova Chem Ser. 2021;27(2):45–52. https://doi.org/10.52846/AUCCHEM.2021.2.05
  38. 38. Ali R, Gul H, Rauf M, Arif M, Hamayun M, Husna H, et al. Growth-promoting endophytic fungus (Stemphylium lycopersici) ameliorates salt stress tolerance in maize by balancing ionic and metabolic status. Front Plant Sci. 2022;13:890565. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2022.890565
  39. 39. Zamljen T, Medic A, Hudina M, Veberic R, Slatnar A. Salt stress differentially affects the primary and secondary metabolism of peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) according to the genotype, fruit part and salinity level. Plants (Basel). 2022;11(7):853. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11070853
  40. 40. Francini A, Sodini M, Vicario G, Raffaelli A, Gucci R, Caruso G, et al. Cations and phenolic compounds concentrations in fruits of fig plants exposed to moderate levels of salinity. Antioxidants (Basel). 2021;10(12):1865. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10121865
  41. 41. Sadeghi A, Razmjoo J, Karimmojeni H, Baldwin TC, Mastinu A. Changes in secondary metabolite production in response to salt stress in Alcea rosea L. Horticulturae. 2024;10(2):139. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae10020139
  42. 42. Li X, Wang S, Guo L, Huang L. Effect of cadmium in the soil on growth, secondary metabolites and metal uptake in Salvia miltiorrhiza. Toxicol Environ Chem. 2013;95(9):1525–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2014.887717
  43. 43. Abdel-Farid IB, Marghany MR, Rowezek MM, Sheded MG. Effect of salinity stress on growth and metabolomic profiling of Cucumis sativus and Solanum lycopersicum. Plants (Basel). 2020;9(11):1626. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9111626
  44. 44. Shilpashree HB, Narayanan AK, Kumar SR, Barvkar V, Nagegowda DA. The cytochrome P450 enzyme WsCYP71B35 from Withania somnifera has a role in withanolides biosynthesis and defence against bacteria. Physiol Plant. 2024;176(1):e14180. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppl.14180

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.