A comprehensive review of virgin coconut oil: Extraction methods and diverse applications
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.14719/pst.5524Keywords:
extraction methods, medium-chain fatty acids, pharmaceutical formulations, virgin coconut oilAbstract
The extraction of virgin coconut oil (VCO) is a critical process that yields premium oil from fresh coconut meat. Renowned for its numerous health benefits and wide-ranging applications in the food, cosmetics, and pharmaceutical industries, VCO has attracted a lot of interest. Traditional cold-pressing methods coexist with modern techniques such as centrifugation and enzyme-assisted extraction. Each method has its own benefits and drawbacks that influence the quality of the end product. To optimize VCO production and maintain its superior quality, it is crucial to understand the extraction procedure, including key factors like acidity, colour, scent, moisture content, and fatty acid composition. Rich in medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs), particularly lauric acid, VCO exhibits potent antibacterial and antioxidant properties, offering significant health and wellness benefits. VCO has diverse industrial applications. It serves as an active ingredient in pharmaceutical formulations, a base oil in cosmetics, a cooking oil, and a component in various food products. It unique combination of nutritional and functional qualities makes it an ideal choice for manufacturers seeking natural and sustainable ingredients. This review focuses on the production methods, physiochemical properties, health benefits, and industrial applications of VCO extraction.
Downloads
References
Marina A, Man YC, Amin I. Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2009;20(10):481-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2009.06.003
DebMandal M, Mandal S. Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.: Arecaceae): in health promotion and disease prevention. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2011;4(3):241-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1995-7645(11)60078-3
Guarte RC, Mühlbauer W, Kellert M. Drying characteristics of copra and quality of copra and coconut oil. Postharvest Biol Technol. 1996;9(3):361-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-5214(96)00032-4
Reddy BS, Maeura Y. Tumor promotion by dietary fat in azoxymethane-induced colon carcinogenesis in female F344 rats: influence of amount and source of dietary fat. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1984;72(3):745-50.
Cohen LA. Dietary fat and mammary cancer. In: Diet, Nutrition and Cancer: A Critical Evaluation. CRC Press; 2018. p. 77-100. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781351071406-6
Law KS, Azman N, Omar EA, Musa MY, Yusoff NM, Sulaiman SA, et al. The effects of virgin coconut oil (VCO) as supplementation on quality of life (QOL) among breast cancer patients. Lipids Health Dis. 2014;13:1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-511X-13-139
Marina A, Che Man Y, Nazimah S, Amin I. Chemical properties of virgin coconut oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2009;86:301-07. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11746-009-1351-1
Villarino BJ, Dy LM, Lizada MCC. Descriptive sensory evaluation of virgin coconut oil and refined, bleached and deodorized coconut oil. LWT-Food Sci Technol. 2007;40(2):193-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2005.11.007
Bawalan DD, Chapman KR. Virgin coconut oil. Prod Man Micro Village Scale Process FAO Reg Off Asia Pac Bangk Food Agric Organ U N First Publ Febr D. 2006.
Kamariah L, Azmi A, Rosmawati A, Ching MW, Azlina M, Sivapragasam A, et al. Physico-chemical and quality characteristics of virgin coconut oil–A Malaysian survey. J Trop Agric Fd Sc. 2008;36(2):000-000.
Nevin K, Rajamohan T. Virgin coconut oil supplemented diet increases the antioxidant status in rats. Food Chem. 2006;99(2):260.6.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.06.056
Shankar P, Ahuja S, Tracchio A. Coconut oil: a review. Agro Food Ind Hi-Tech. 2013;24(5):62-64.
Dia VP, Garcia VV, Mabesa RC, Tecson-Mendoza EM. Comparative physicochemical characteristics of virgin coconut oil produced by different methods. Philipp Agric Sci. 2005;88(4):462.
Ghani NAA, Channip A, Chok Hwee Hwa P, Ja’afar F, Yasin HM, Usman A. Physicochemical properties, antioxidant capacities and metal contents of virgin coconut oil produced by wet and dry processes. Food Sci Nutr. 2018;6(5):1298-306. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.671
Mansor T, Che Man Y, Shuhaimi M, Abdul Afiq M, Ku Nurul F. Physicochemical properties of virgin coconut oil extracted from different processing methods. Int Food Res J. 2012;19(3).
Rohman A, Indrayanto G. Virgin coconut oil: Extraction, quality control and biological functions. In: Ramesh SV, Praveen S, editors. Coconut-Based Nutrition and Nutraceutical Perspectives [Internet]. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore; 2024 [cited 2024 Oct 28]. p. 151-68. Available from: https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-97-3976-9_7 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-3976-9_7
Marina A, Che Man Y, Nazimah S, Amin I. Antioxidant capacity and phenolic acids of virgin coconut oil. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2009;60(sup2):114-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637480802549127
Onsaard E, Vittayanont M, Srigam S, McClements DJ. Properties and stability of oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by coconut skim milk proteins. J Agric Food Chem. 2005;53(14):5747-53. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf050312r
Nour AH, Mohammed F, Yunus RM, Arman A. Demulsification of virgin coconut oil by centrifugation method: a feasibility study. Int J Chem Technol. 2009;1(2):59-64. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijct.2009.59.64
Abdurahman N, Khoo C, Azhari N. Production of virgin coconut oil (VCO) by centrifugation method. Univ Malays Pahang Kuantan ICCEIB-SOMChE. 2011;1-7.
Bawalan DD. Processing manual for virgin coconut oil, its products and by-products for Pacific Island countries and territories. Secretariat of the Pacific Community; 2011.
Madhavan K, Kumar SN, Shamina Azeez SA. Virgin coconut oil by fermentation method. 2005.
Che Man Y, Suhardiyono, Asbi A, Azudin M, Wei L. Aqueous enzymatic extraction of coconut oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1996;73:683-86. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02517940
Raghavendra S, Raghavarao K. Effect of different treatments for the destabilization of coconut milk emulsion. J Food Eng. 2010;97(3):341-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.10.027
Rosenthal A, Pyle D, Niranjan K. Aqueous and enzymatic processes for edible oil extraction. Enzyme Microb Technol. 1996;19(6):402-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-0229(96)80004-F
Mohammed NK, Samir ZT, Jassim MA, Saeed SK. Effect of different extraction methods on physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity of virgin coconut oil. Mater Today Proc. 2021;42:2000-05. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.12.248
Man YC, Ali A. Acetic aid treatment of coconut cream in coconut oil extraction. ASEAN Food J Malays. 1992;7(1).
Sant’Anna BP, Freitas SP, Coelho MA. Enzymatic aqueous technology for simultaneous coconut protein and oil extraction. Grasas Aceites. 2003;54(1):77-80. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.2003.v54.i1.281
Del Rosario E. Use of cellulase in the extraction of coconut oil and proteins. Natl Res Counc Philipp Res Bull. 1973;28(1):57-63.
Ng YJ, Tham PE, Khoo KS, Cheng CK, Chew KW, Show PL. A comprehensive review on the techniques for coconut oil extraction and its application. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng. 2021;44(9):1807-18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00449-021-02577-9
Agarwal RK, Bosco S. Extraction processes of virgin coconut oil. MOJ Food Process Technol. 2017;4(2):00087. https://doi.org/10.15406/mojfpt.2017.04.00087
Patil U, Benjakul S, Prodpran T, Senphan T, Cheetangdee N. Characteristics and quality of virgin coconut oil as influenced by maturity stages. Carpathian J Food Sci Technol. 2016;8(4).
Asiah N, Cempaka L, Maulidini T. Comparative study: physico-chemical properties of virgin coconut oil using various culture. Asia Pac J Sustain Agric Food Energy. 2018;6(2):1-5.
Rohman A, Irnawati, Erwanto Y, Lukitaningsih E, Rafi M, Fadzilah NA, et al. Virgin coconut oil: extraction, physicochemical properties, biological activities and its authentication analysis. Food Rev Int. 2021;37(1):46-66. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1687515
Dumancas GG, Viswanath LCK, de Leon AR, Ramasahayam S, Maples R, Koralege RH, et al. Health benefits of virgin coconut oil. Veg Oil Prop Uses Benefits. 2016;1:161-94.
Hamid M, Sarmidi M, Mokhtar T, Sulaiman W, Aziz R. Innovative integrated wet process for virgin coconut oil production. J Appl Sci. 2011;11(13):2467-69. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2011.2467.2469
Nitbani FO, Tjitda PJP, Nitti F, Jumina J, Detha AIR. Antimicrobial properties of lauric acid and monolaurin in virgin coconut oil: A review. ChemBioEng Rev. 2022 Oct;9(5):442-61. https://doi.org/10.1002/cben.202100050
Shilling M, Matt L, Rubin E, Visitacion MP, Haller NA, Grey SF, et al. Antimicrobial effects of virgin coconut oil and its medium-chain fatty acids on Clostridium difficile. J Med Food. 2013;16(12):1079-85. https://doi.org/10.1089/jmf.2012.0303
Liau KM, Lee YY, Chen CK, Rasool AHG. An open?label pilot study to assess the efficacy and safety of virgin coconut oil in reducing visceral adiposity. Int Sch Res Not. 2011;2011(1):949686. https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/949686
Silalahi J, Surbakti C. Burn wound healing activity of hydrolyzed virgin coconut oil. Int J PharmTech Res. 2015;8(1):67-73.
Nevin K, Rajamohan T. Effect of topical application of virgin coconut oil on skin components and antioxidant status during dermal wound healing in young rats. Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2010;23(6):290-97. https://doi.org/10.1159/000313516
Babu AS, Veluswamy SK, Arena R, Guazzi M, Lavie CJ. Virgin coconut oil and its potential cardioprotective effects. Postgrad Med. 2014;126(7):76-83. https://doi.org/10.3810/pgm.2014.11.2835
Satheesh N. Review on production and potential applications of virgin coconut oil. Ann Food Sci Technol. 2015;16(1).
Noor NM, Khan AA, Hasham R, Talib A, Sarmidi MR, Aziz R, et al. Empty nano and micro?structured lipid carriers of virgin coconut oil for skin moisturisation. IET Nanobiotechnol. 2016 Aug;10(4):195-99. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-nbt.2015.0041
Chew YL. The beneficial properties of virgin coconut oil in management of atopic dermatitis. Pharmacogn Rev. 2019;13(25):24. https://doi.org/10.4103/phrev.phrev_29_18
Yeap SK, Beh BK, Ali NM, Yusof HM, Ho WY, Koh SP, et al. Antistress and antioxidant effects of virgin coconut oil in vivo. Exp Ther Med. 2015;9(1):39-42. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2014.2045
Zeng YQ, He JT, Hu BY, Li W, Deng J, Lin QL, et al. Virgin coconut oil: A comprehensive review of antioxidant activity and mechanisms contributed by phenolic compounds. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024 Feb 5;64(4):1052-75. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2022.2113361
Prasanth Kumar PK, Gopala Krishna AG. Physicochemical characteristics of commercial coconut oils produced in India. Grasas Aceites. 2015 Mar 30;66(1):e062. https://doi.org/10.3989/gya.0228141
Narayanankutty A, Illam SP, Raghavamenon AC. Health impacts of different edible oils prepared from coconut (Cocos nucifera): A comprehensive review. Trends Food Sci Technol. 2018 Oct;80:1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.07.025
Liyanaarachchi DUS. National Science and Technology Commission.
Nevin K, Rajamohan T. Beneficial effects of virgin coconut oil on lipid parameters and in vitro LDL oxidation. Clin Biochem. 2004;37(9):830-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2004.04.010
Juki? Špika M, Perica S, Žaneti? M, Škevin D. Virgin olive oil phenols, fatty acid composition and sensory profile: Can cultivar overpower environmental and ripening effect? Antioxidants. 2021 Apr 27;10(5):689. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10050689
Tan CX. Virgin avocado oil: An emerging source of functional fruit oil. J Funct Foods. 2019 Mar;54:381-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2018.12.031
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 GB Thimmana, M Kumar, S Geethanjali, V Vani, J Suresh
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright and Licence details of published articles
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Open Access Policy
Plant Science Today is an open access journal. There is no registration required to read any article. All published articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC Attribution 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
